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Recent advances on the fabrication methods of nanocomposite yarn-based strain sensor

  • Xiaoning Tang , Deshan Cheng , Jianhua Ran , Daiqi Li , Chengen He , Shuguang Bi EMAIL logo , Guangming Cai EMAIL logo and Xin Wang EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: April 26, 2021
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 10 Issue 1

Abstract

Yarn-based strain sensor is an emerging candidate for the fabrication of wearable electronic devices. The intrinsic properties of yarn, such as excellent lightweight, flexibility, stitchability, and especially its highly stretchable performance, stand out the yarn-based strain sensor from conventional rigid sensors in detection of human body motions. Recent advances in conductive materials and fabrication methods of yarn-based strain sensors are well reviewed and discussed in this work. Coating techniques including dip-coating, layer by layer assemble, and chemical deposition for deposition of conductive layer on elastic filament were first introduced, and fabrication technology to incorporate conductive components into elastic matrix via melt extrusion or wet spinning was reviewed afterwards. Especially, the recent advances of core–sheath/wrapping yarn strain sensor as-fabricated by traditional spinning technique were well summarized. Finally, promising perspectives and challenges together with key points in the development of yarn strain sensors were presented for future endeavor.

Keywords: strain sensor; conductive; coating; core–sheath

1 Introduction

Smart textiles have gradually been a hot topic in both industry and academia because of the growing demands of performance and functions from textiles [1]. With electronic components effectively integrated into fibrous substrate, electronically smart textiles represent as an attractive platform for wearable device integration, such as wearable sensor, wearable heater, and wearable color-changing display [2,3]. Because of their robust sensitivity, smart textiles can sense external stimuli including thermal, mechanical, chemical, electrical, magnetic, and optical [4]. In practical applications, smart textiles may be capable of sensing, actuation processing, and energy harvesting through their response to stimulation behavior in an intelligent way [5]. Among various functions, the accurate sense of strain plays an important role for wearable devices [6,7]. Strain sensing component has been considered as the foundation to measure the shape, and detect the posture and movement of human body [8]. The strain measurement on the surface can directly provide the detailed physical information. Traditional resistance strain gages can monitor strain at small length scale along specific directions, where the deformation strain range is generally less than 5% [9,10]. Textile strain sensor is promising for monitoring large range sensing in smart garment because of the good flexibility of fibrous materials [11]. Recently, textile strain sensors with specific functionality emphasizing limbs and trunk motion detection have attracted growing attentions for potential applications [12]. The development of textile strain sensor is essential for the fabrication of wearable electronics.

Textiles have been considered as the ideal platform to integrate diverse flexible electronic devices for development of wearable systems [13]. Textile strain sensors with excellent flexibility are promising for potential smart clothing applications, as downstream development of wearable devices [14,15]. Generally, textile strain sensors can be successfully fabricated by coating conductive materials onto fabric substrate [16]. However, the coating process results in the damage in the strenuous mechanical deformations, and thus it is an interesting topic to enhance the fastness of the coated conductive layer [17]. As the intermediate component in textile processing line, elastomeric conductive filament and/or yarn can be directly woven or knitted into textile substrate [18]. These filaments and yarns are realized by the widely used scalable fiber spinning technology, such as wet spinning and melt-extrusion spinning [19]. In addition, the structural geometry manipulation of yarn by helically winding conductive fibers onto core substrate was used to develop nanocomposite yarn with multiple layers [20]. The wrapped compression spring structure of the yarn is a powerful tool to achieve long-range elasticity, which is ideal in developing wearable sensors.

Fibrous materials are typically divided into three types at different processing levels: fibers, yarns, and fabrics [21]. Yarn and fabric are defined as hierarchically structured fibrous materials assembling fibers at one-dimensional and two-dimensional levels, respectively [22]. Electrically conducting fibers and yarns are essential candidates for wearable electronic devices including sensor, antennae, signal processor, and energy harvester [23]. The electrical resistance of the yarn varies with the applying strain, developing a relationship between mechanical and electrical signals [24]. Among textile-based sensors at different hierarchical levels, yarn sensors are flexible, light-weighted, and comfortable [25]. One important advantage of yarn-based sensor is that it has great processing potential for developing different products. Yarn sensor can be easily woven or knitted into different textures for the integration of sensors within fabric structure [26,27]. In principle, yarn sensor can be designed and fabricated to detect various stimuli such as pressure, strain, proximity, and temperature. Yarn sensor has been demonstrated for many applications including biomedical monitoring [28], security [29], sports [30], and display [31]. Several reviews have been published to discuss the progress of textile strain sensor. For instance, Heo et al. [32] summarized the emerging trends of wearable textile electronics by incorporating e-textiles into fiber-based electronic apparel as a smart platform for displays, sensors, and batteries. Seyedin et al. [33] have gathered the most recent advances in textile strain sensor including fabrication technology, performance evaluation, and various applications as wearable electronics. Wang et al. [34] have reported the progress in textile-based strain sensor for human movement detection. These literatures have provided significant insights and contributed greatly to the development of yarn-based sensor with resistive, capacitive, and piezoelectrical properties as sensing systems. However, a compressive review focusing on nanocomposite yarn-based stretchable strain sensor for wearable electronics would enrich the knowledge of textile-based electronics and complement to the existing reviews in smart textile areas. Thus, this work focused on yarn strain sensors with good weaving capacity with enhanced stability, which is one of the most explored areas in textile sensor. This work reviewed different conductive materials and fabrication methods of yarn-based strain sensors, with the scope covering the following three sections: (1) coated filament and staple fiber yarn; (2) melt extrusion and wet spinning; and (3) twisting structure design of yarn sensor. An attempt was also made to review and critically comment on numerous literatures and current limitations together with insights with respect to yarn-based strain sensor were presented. This work will directly benefit the development of yarn-based wearable sensors for better wearable electronic devices.

2 Coated filament and/or staple yarn

Coating of electrically conductive layer onto the surface of fibers is a simple measure to impart electronic capabilities to fibrous materials for strain sensor applications. Such a coating process can be successfully done at different hierarchical levels of textile structure, such as fiber, yarn, or fabric [35,36,37,38]. In general, electrical conductivity can be achieved by coating conductive materials including intrinsically conductive polymers [39,40], conducting polymer composites [41], metals [42], carbon nanotubes [43,44,45], carbon nano-powders [46,47], and graphene [48]. According to reported studies, electrical deposition [49], dip-coating [50], and chemical vapor deposition [51] were successfully used to obtain conductive coating. Especially, direct dip-coating and chemical deposition approaches were widely used to fabricate yarn sensor.

2.1 Dip-coating

Dip-coating is a widely used facile technique to deposit functional layer onto various substrates including metallic, ceramic, polymer films, and fibrous materials [52,53]. Considering its easy-operation and low cost, dip-coating has gradually been an increasingly hotspot [54]. The dip-coating treatment of thin conductive layer onto the surface of yarn to prepare strain sensor has also exhibited the advantage of high efficiency.

Silver nanowires (AgNWs) were interpenetrated into polyolefin elastomer nanofibrous yarn through dipping treatment [55], and three-dimensional interpenetrating AgNWs were uniformly distributed in the polyolefin elastomer nanofiber spacing to generate electrical conductivity. Li et al. [56] prepared multi-scale nanocomposites consisting of 0D silver nanoparticles, 1D AgNWs, and 2D nanosheet structured MXene, and these nanocomposites exhibited good electrical conductivity. Polydopamine was also used to enhance the loading of conductive elements, such as delaminated MXene dispersions and silver nanoparticles, on elastic yarns via dipping or self-growth. The as-prepared composite yarn strain sensor showed remarkable high strain and sensitivity, and it was able to detect both large and small deformation of human body effectively. Furthermore, highly conductive and machine-washable silk yarn sensor was developed by dip-coating of Ag nanowire and PEDOT:PSS composite layer [57]. The silk yarn strain sensor exhibited high conductivity with excellent washability, which largely enhanced its potential in wearable applications. Niu et al. [58] used elastic polyurethane yarn as the substrate to prepare graphene-coated yarn strain sensor. A facile roll-to-roll process is feasible to achieve the large-scale production of nanofibrous composite yarn strain sensor. The yarn was alternately dipped into polyurethane yarn (PUY) and graphene solution repeatedly followed by polydopamine coating around the reduced graphene oxide (rGO) layer in the reaction process. The repeated process is necessary to fabricate the polydopamine (PDA) layer on polyurethane core yarn strain sensor. The obtained sensor could be easily incorporated into textile structure with good comfort and aesthetic appearance as wearable devices.

Some novel coated structures can also be fabricated via dip-coating. According to Wang et al. [59], cylindrical wood rod was dipped into molten rubber vertically followed by fast withdrawn, and then the attached liquid was solidified in air to produce rubber fiber. The as-fabricated rubber fiber was highly stretched to large deformation when the fiber was wrapping with carbon nanotube sheet, resulting in a hierarchical buckling structure when the forced strain was released, as shown in Figure 1(a and b). Wu et al. [60] used dip-coating and roll-to-roll technique to prepare sheath–core yarn strain sensor with large scale. The synergistic crack and elastic effects resulted in a high gauge factor and excellent repeatability for the as-prepared yarn strain sensor. The surface morphology of strain sensor under releasing and stretching is shown in Figure 2(a–c). A simple system was also designed to precisely regulate the robot hand movement, in which yarn strain sensor was used as a controlling device. In addition, Chinese brush pen was used to prepare sliver/waterborne polyurethane coating [61], so as to build multi-scale wrinkled microstructures on the surface of polyurethane fibers, as shown in Figure 2(d), The core–shell yarn sensor with wrinkled microstructures can be used to develop flexible piezoresistive devices for the detection of pressure and bending deformations. The proposed sensor exhibited high sensitivity, low detection limit, and excellent stability with faster response because of the dramatically reduced viscoelastic effect.

Figure 1 (a and b) Steps in the fabrication of buckling-structured elastic conducting sheath–core fiber [59]. Copyright 2016, Wiley.
Figure 1

(a and b) Steps in the fabrication of buckling-structured elastic conducting sheath–core fiber [59]. Copyright 2016, Wiley.

Figure 2 (a–c) Diagrammatic sketch of the crack and elastic effects in the breathing sheath–core fiber strain sensor [60]; (d) fabrication process of core–shell conductive fiber with wrinkled microstructure [61]. (a–c) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society; (d) Copyright 2016, Wiley.
Figure 2

(a–c) Diagrammatic sketch of the crack and elastic effects in the breathing sheath–core fiber strain sensor [60]; (d) fabrication process of core–shell conductive fiber with wrinkled microstructure [61]. (a–c) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society; (d) Copyright 2016, Wiley.

2.2 Layer-by-layer and ultrasonic-assisted dip-coating

Multiple dipping process was also developed to strengthen the deposited layer. Zheng et al. [62] deposited graphene nanosheets onto cotton fabrics followed by the encapsulation of polydimethylsiloxane. Wu et al. [63] proposed a facile and cost efficient layer-by-layer dip-coating method for the fabrication of highly sensitive strain sensor, as shown in Figure 3(a). Polyurethane yarn was first coated with conductive natural rubber layer modified by carbon black fillers. Then, the as-treated yarn was dipped into positively and negatively charged solutions alternately. Therefore, the electrostatic layer was deposited onto the surface of polyurethane yarn. The composite yarn with excellent electrical conductivity can be used as strain sensor. Using polyurethane yarn as elastic core, graphene and poly(vinyl alcohol) composites were also coated on the surface as conductive sheath by layer-by-layer assembly method [64]. Recently, the composite of conductive Ag-nanoparticles and graphene micro-sheet was used as a sheath, and silicone encapsulation layer was fabricated on the surface of core polyurethane yarn via layer-by-layer assembly coating [65]. Furthermore, facile dry-Meyer-rod-coating process was reported to prepare conductive sheath/core-structured graphite/silk yarn strain sensor, as shown in Figure 3(b) [66].

Figure 3 (a) Schematic process for the fabrication of CPC@PU yarn by LBL assembly [63]; (b) sheath–core structured graphite/silk strain sensors by dry-Meyer-rod-coating [66]. (a and b) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.
Figure 3

(a) Schematic process for the fabrication of CPC@PU yarn by LBL assembly [63]; (b) sheath–core structured graphite/silk strain sensors by dry-Meyer-rod-coating [66]. (a and b) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

Ultrasonic processing is an effective method to implement modification of fibrous substrate by nanomaterials, and it can achieve improved properties in comparison with facile dip-coating approach [67]. Li et al. [68] prepared highly conductive and stretchable electro-spun thermoplastic polyurethane yarn sensor. The yarn was first decorated with both multi-walled and single-walled carbon nanotubes under the ultrasonication treatment, and the synergistic effect resulted in an increase in electrical conductivity for better strain sensing applications. Souri et al. [69] reported the systematic effects on the fabrication of electrically conductive natural fiber yarn via coating with graphene nanoplatelets and carbon black in a ultrasonication bath. The results indicated that flax yarn as abundant, cost-effective, and lightweight natural materials could be used for stretchable strain sensing devices. Recently, superhydrophobic strain sensor based on conductive polyurethane/carbon nanotubes with polydimethylsiloxane matrix was loaded onto electrospun nanofiber surface by ultrasonication induced decoration. Because of the ultrasonic effects, carbon nanotubes were uniformly dispersed on the nanofiber surface, and a hierarchical conductive network was successfully built [70]. According to reported studies, ultrasonication is effective in improving the decentralization of conductive nanofillers. Multiple dipping process allows regulation of electrical conductivity of yarn strain sensor via adjusting the dipping times. Recently, layer-by-layer dip-coating assembly has been widely used in the fabrication of yarn strain sensor. Staple fiber yarn or filament was alternately dipped into different aqueous solutions with opposite charges. The developed yarn strain sensor exhibited good flexibility and stretchability, which can be easily incorporated into textile structures through weaving, knitting, and braiding for wearable sensing applications.

2.3 Chemical deposition coating

In situ chemical deposition to fabricate layers on fibrous materials exhibits several advantages including environmental friendliness, robust bonding strength, and cost-effectiveness. It is an effective technique to achieve a homogenous integration between inorganic components and polymer matrix. Liu et al. [71] developed an in situ polymerization method to prepare adherent polydopamine film on polyurethane filaments for deposition of silver particles, as shown in Figure 4(a). It was found that the silver components were well deposited because of the catechol groups of polydopamine. The developed flexible yarn strain sensor with high elasticity and linearity can be applied as wearable strain sensing devices. Liu et al. [72] prepared poly-pyrrole nanostructure layer-coated electro-spun polyacrylonitrile nanofiber yarn through an in situ chemical polymerization treatment. The yarn strain sensor exhibited high sensitivity and fast response time even in ammonia atmosphere. Hong et al. [73] developed a continuous conductive treatment of yarn by in situ polymerization. Conductive silk fibroin yarn was coated with polyaniline by a modified method with reduced consumption of reaction solution and improved efficiency. Both silk fibroin surface and the gap between yarns were covered and filled with polyaniline. The as-treated yarn showed the potential to be used as strain sensors in smart textiles. In conclusion, in situ polymerization is an effective method to deposit conductive component on fibrous materials. The chemical bonding effects can improve the adhesivity between strain sensing layer and yarn surface.

Figure 4 (a) Sketch map of conductive polyurethane filaments by in situ reduction and electroless silver plating [18]; (b) fabrication of strain sensor with cluster-type microstructures [80]; (c) AgNWs and AgNPs in the composite fiber under different conditions [81]. (a) Copyright 2017, Elsevier; (b) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society; (c) Copyright 2015, Wiley.
Figure 4

(a) Sketch map of conductive polyurethane filaments by in situ reduction and electroless silver plating [18]; (b) fabrication of strain sensor with cluster-type microstructures [80]; (c) AgNWs and AgNPs in the composite fiber under different conditions [81]. (a) Copyright 2017, Elsevier; (b) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society; (c) Copyright 2015, Wiley.

3 Melt extrusion and wet spinning

Electrically conductive yarns for wearable devices are generally composed of metallic fibers, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and conductive polymers [74,75,76]. Polymer and conductive component can be integrated via either melt extrusion or wet spinning method. The improvement of the strength and durability has been an important topic [77]. Lin et al. [78] prepared polyester yarns coated with polypropylene and carbon nanotubes layer using melt extrusion method. Polyester yarn as the core component has an easy-processing feature, and it provides robust mechanical properties for the final conductive yarns. However, the as-prepared yarn has been limited to detect tiny body movement because of its poor elasticity in strain sensing applications [79]. Recently, Liao et al. [80] proposed a cluster-type microstructure strategy for fabrication of yarn strain sensor using nozzle jet printing method, as shown in Figure 4(b). This work has indicated that the intrinsic elasticity of textiles can be used to realize unique microstructure design when nozzle jet printing the conductive layer.

Wet spinning technique of yarn strain sensor fabrication has been widely used. Generally, the process mainly includes the following steps: (1) the preparation of spinning solution; (2) the formation of fine stream by pressing the solution out of the spinneret; (3) the production of primary fiber because of the coagulation of the solution; and (4) coiling and direct post-treatment [82,83,84]. Wet spinning has been widely used to fabricate yarn strain sensor. For instance, Seyedin et al. [28] developed a wet-spinning method to fabricate electrically conductive and highly stretchable yarn. It has been found that the polyurethane/PEDOT:PSS yarn exhibited robust mechanical properties to meet the requirement of knitting technique. Highly stable sensor was successfully fabricated by the co-knit processing with commercial Spandex yarn. The production of highly stretchable conductive yarn consisting of AgNWs and nanoparticles in styrene–butadiene–styrene elastomeric matrix was also reported [81]. Sliver nanowires decorated styrene–butadiene–styrene filament was fabricated by facile wet spinning method, in which sliver nanoparticles were deposited on the surface and inner region of composite filament via repeated cycles of silver precursor absorption and reduction treatment, as shown in Figure 4(c). Seyedin et al. [85] also achieved large scale production of conductive elastomeric filament, which can be used as strain sensor to detect large strains with high stability. Furthermore, the sensing behavior of yarn strain sensor can be well regulated by facile alteration of loop configuration and stitch insertion, resulting in five different knit prototypes. Recently, He et al. [86] reported a novel highly sensitive strain sensor based on multi-walled carbon nanotube and thermoplastic polyurethane through wet spinning process. The composite filament exhibited strong tensile strength and ultra-high sensitivity with an approximate gauge factor of 2,800, which fulfills the requirement of accurate detection of wearable electronics. Melt extrusion method can effectively avoid the breakage phenomenon of spinning with high loading fillers. The strain sensor exhibited a considerably high sensitivity and high stretchability because of the unique design of its geometric structure and the effectiveness of the conductive sensing materials. The structure evolvement has increased the permeation of conductive components into the inner region of yarn in the filament formation process.

Coaxial wet spinning was used to achieve diversified design of filament. It is a powerful tool to integrate different components into a sheath–core structure [88,89,90]. For instance, Zhou et al. [87] prepared coaxial filament made of thermoplastic matrix via coaxial wet spinning assembly technique, as shown in Figure 5(a and b). Solution stretching–drying–buckling approach was also developed to obtain desired hierarchical structures, and the prepared yarn strain sensor exhibited self-buckled conductive core. The unique buckled structure is beneficial in improving the stability of electrical conductivity. The yarn strain sensor can be repeatedly stretched up to 680% with less than 4% resistance change, and thus it can be used in high-conductivity applications. Guo et al. [91] reported the fabrication of stretchable optical strain sensor with wide sensing range and high sensitivity. The yarn strain sensor was fabricated with highly stretchable polydimethylsiloxane matrix through core/cladding step-index configuration design, where the inner space was embedded with conductive gold nanoparticles. The as-prepared strain sensor can be used in the integration of wearable electronics, including human–machine operation, personal healthcare, and intelligent robotic.

Figure 5 (a and b) Coaxial wet‐spinning process for encapsulating the conductive dispersion in an elastic thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) channel [87]. Copyright 2019, Wiley.
Figure 5

(a and b) Coaxial wet‐spinning process for encapsulating the conductive dispersion in an elastic thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) channel [87]. Copyright 2019, Wiley.

4 Twisting structure design of yarn sensor

4.1 Sheath–core spun yarn

The sensing of multiple mechanical deformations has posed an urgent challenge to both industrial and academic researchers. Cheng et al. [92] developed a facile and low-cost strategy to fabricate graphene-based composite yarn with compressive spring architecture, as shown in Figure 6(a and b). The sheath–core spun yarn consisted of a stretchable core polyurethane filament and helically winded polyester fibers, because of which the yarn exhibited excellent bending and torsion-sensitive efficiency after a dip-coating and reduction treatment to obtain electrical conductivity. In another work [93], commercial composite yarn consisting of central elastic rubber latex thread and winding polyurethane fibers was used as scaffold. The stretched yarn was deposited with P(VDF-TrFE) nanofibers followed by the deposition of sliver as conductive layer. Wang et al. [94] designed a wrapping and coating device to achieve the fabrication of cotton/polyurethane core-spun yarn, as shown in Figure 6(c). During the winding process of cotton fibers on polyurethane filament surface, conductive single-wall carbon nanotube was incorporated into the core-spun yarn through coating treatment. The self-designed equipment with simplicity can well achieve the uniform covering of twisted fibers and scalable production of sheath–core yarn [95]. Considering the brittleness of carbon nanofiber yarn, the generated subtle cracks can increase the sensitivity during stretching process. Yan et al. [96] reported the fabrication of sheath–core helical yarn through carbonization of core cotton yarn while electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofiber was used as a wrapping sheath. The yarn was effective to monitor subtle strains as lower as 0.1% with good sensitivity. Recently, natural silk fiber was also functionalized by tailor-made carbon nanotube paint to fabricate strain sensor, thus to detect the physical stimuli of human body [97].

Figure 6 (a and b) Schematic illustration of the modeling structure and the schematic drawing of doubled covered structure [92]; (c) fabrication process of the PU/Cotton/CNT yarn [94] (a and b) Copyright 2015, Wiley; (c) Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society.
Figure 6

(a and b) Schematic illustration of the modeling structure and the schematic drawing of doubled covered structure [92]; (c) fabrication process of the PU/Cotton/CNT yarn [94] (a and b) Copyright 2015, Wiley; (c) Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society.

Considering the mismatch of modulus and elasticity between carbon nanotubes and polyurethane yarn in the stretching process, sheath–core yarn with wrinkle-assisted crack microstructure can be fabricated. Cracked conductive network was integrated with structural wrinkles to obtain wrinkle-assisted crack microstructure yarn strain sensors [98]. The yarn strain sensor exhibited high sensitivity with the gauge factor of 1344.1, ultra-low detection limit of less than 0.1% sensing range, excellent durability, large workable deformation, and sensitive response to bending stimuli. Apart from polyurethane fiber, latex filament was also used to fabricate sheath–core spun yarn strain sensor. Flexible latex was wrapped with polyester filaments followed by the deposition of conductive poly-pyrrole [99].

Traditional yarn manufacturing technique was also used to fabricate yarn strain sensor. Conductive composite yarn consisting of spandex filament as the stretchable core and carbon nanotube as the sheath was successfully fabricated [100]. Carbon nanotubes were incorporated into cotton rovings by dipping and drying treatment before the traditional sirofil spinning, as shown in Figure 7(a–c). Cotton roving was first dipped into the CNT solution, thus to prepare CNT-cotton roving. Then sirofil spinning technique was used to achieve the winding process of Spandex yarn. The as-prepared CNT/cotton/spandex composite yarn exhibited excellent electrical conductivity and improved mechanical properties with super-stretchability. Pan et al. [101] reported the fabrication of yarn strain sensor by in situ polymerization of poly-pyrrole on polydopamine templated core-spun yarn surface, as shown in Figure 7(d–f). The composite yarn has unique braid structure with a cauliflower-like poly-pyrrole layer formed on the surface. The result indicated that the braid structure together with the elastic polymer exhibited a steady-going and reversible strain sensing performance. Furthermore, multiple spinning optimization process was also used to fabricate highly stretchable cotton/carbon nanotube sheath–core yarn. The yarn exhibited excellent stretchable capacity because of the unique spring-like structure, which can be used as wearable strain sensors with ultrahigh strain sensing range (0–350%), thus for both subtle and large human motion monitoring [102].

Figure 7 (a–c) Schematic illustrations concerning the preparation of CNT/cotton roving and composite fabric [100]; (d–f) SEM of braided composite yarns by in situ polymerization of poly-pyrrole at different magnifications [101]. (a–c) Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society; (d–f) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.
Figure 7

(a–c) Schematic illustrations concerning the preparation of CNT/cotton roving and composite fabric [100]; (d–f) SEM of braided composite yarns by in situ polymerization of poly-pyrrole at different magnifications [101]. (a–c) Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society; (d–f) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

Apart from wrapped fibers, nanomaterials can also be used as a sheath layer to prepare sheath–core yarn strain sensor. Spandex filament was continuously wrapped with carbon nanotube aerogel sheets to prepare conducting stretch fabric via interlocking circular knitting technique [103]. Wang et al. [104] performed thermal annealing treatment of graphene-based stretchable conductive yarn to increase electrical conductivity, and the yarn was used in the fabrication of twist-spinning graphene film. The core–sheath structure can also be obtained by dipping pure carbon nanotube yarn into polyvinyl alcohol solutions [105]. This method prevents the slippage of carbon nanotube bundles, allowing the yarn sensor to exhibit stable resistance with cyclic loaded strain for promising switch-type strain sensor applications. Recently, super-elastic polyurethane yarn was wrapped by graphene nanosheets/gold/graphene nanosheet film and thin polydimethylsiloxane layer [106]. The composite structure provided the yarn strain sensor with high flexibility and sensitivity, wide strain-sensing range, and excellent waterproof efficiency. Compared with conventional strain sensors based on metal and semiconductors, the sensing range of general yarn strain sensor has increased. However, typical yarn-based sensor is still limited to detect the strenuous body movements involving tensile strain, such as bending and twisting. The elasticity of sheath–core yarn strain sensor can be dramatically enhanced using polyurethane surrounded by conventional yarn. The excellent flexibility of core filament provided robust resilience after the stretching process, resulting in a highly stretchable yarn strain sensor.

4.2 Helical yarn

The unique compression spring structure because of the helically twisted filament is an effective approach to obtain good elasticity. Different from the above-mentioned sheath–core structure, helical structure can be fabricated by a single yarn. Zhao et al. [107] developed a prototype carbon nanotube yarn strain sensor with excellent repeatability and stability for in situ structural health detection. The yarn was directly spun from the as-grown carbon nanotube arrays, and the twisting process resulted in an electrically conductive pathway in the longitudinal direction. It is a promising strain sensor as the electrical resistance increases linearly with tensile strain. Shang et al. [108] fabricated yarn-derived spring-like carbon nanotube rope consisting of uniformly arranged loops, as shown in Figure 8(a). The spring-like rope was obtained by over-twisting the randomly oriented carbon nanotube film using a modified spinning technique. Furthermore, Shang et al. [109] prepared yarn-derived two-level hierarchical composite structure consisting of twisted double-helical yarns, as shown in Figure 8(b–g). The yarn end was adaptive to the recoverable drag, resulting in a large linear change of tensile strain against electrical resistance. The extensively twisted effects of entanglement enable the yarn to be a stretchable strain sensor [110].

Figure 8 (a) Illustration of the spinning process involving the fabrication of helical yarn from carbon nanotube film [108]; (b–g) fabrication and characterization of double-helix carbon nanotube yarn [109]. (a) Copyright 2012, Wiley; (b–g) Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society.
Figure 8

(a) Illustration of the spinning process involving the fabrication of helical yarn from carbon nanotube film [108]; (b–g) fabrication and characterization of double-helix carbon nanotube yarn [109]. (a) Copyright 2012, Wiley; (b–g) Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society.

Ultra-high stretchable sensor was also fabricated by dry-spun method, in which carbon nanotube fibers were grown on flexible substrates [111]. This method is beneficial in reducing the conductive path, enabling carbon nanotube fibers to be used as highly sensitive strain sensor. Gao et al. [112] fabricated carbon nanotubes and polyurethane nanofiber composite helical yarn, in which the synergy between mechanical properties and spring-like microgeometry resulted in the high elasticity, as shown in Figure 9. Carbon nanotubes were effectively winding-locked into the helical yarn through twisting approach for high conductivity. The interlaced conductive helical network at both microlevel and macrolevel can achieve robust recoverability and tensile elongation. Recently, Jang et al. [113] fabricated coiled helical carbon nanotube yarn to convert mechanical movement into electrical energy because of the stretch-induced capacitance variability. The yarn can be used to generate electrical power by periodic deformations, e.g., the movement of stomach can be measured during both food mixing and emptying into the intestine to produce the electrical pulses signals. In comparison with the mostly studied straight carbon nanotube yarn, the hierarchical yarn exhibited both good elasticity and high strength for the fabrication of textile strain sensor. The unique structure exhibited separated two-stage fracture behavior, which is important to prevent catastrophic failure in potential strain sensor applications. The helical nanotube yarn can also be over twisted into highly entangled structure consisting of tangled double-helix segments, thus for wearable electronic devices.

Figure 9 Preparation and morphology of CNTs/PU helical yarn. (a) The fabrication scheme of the helical CNTs/PU yarn. The optical images of (b) PU nanofibers strip, (c) intermediate state of the twisting process, (d) the twisted CNTs/PU yarn, and (e) the overtwisted CNTs/PU helical yarn. SEM images of (f) aligned PU nanofibers, (g) torsion angle during twisting process, (h) the uniform straight CNTs/PU yarn, (i) the helical CNTs/PU yarn with spring-like coils, (j) CNTs network on PU nanofibers surface, and (k) high magnification of CNTs network. The cross section SEM of (l) CNTs/PU twisted yarn and (m) amplification image of section [112]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.
Figure 9

Preparation and morphology of CNTs/PU helical yarn. (a) The fabrication scheme of the helical CNTs/PU yarn. The optical images of (b) PU nanofibers strip, (c) intermediate state of the twisting process, (d) the twisted CNTs/PU yarn, and (e) the overtwisted CNTs/PU helical yarn. SEM images of (f) aligned PU nanofibers, (g) torsion angle during twisting process, (h) the uniform straight CNTs/PU yarn, (i) the helical CNTs/PU yarn with spring-like coils, (j) CNTs network on PU nanofibers surface, and (k) high magnification of CNTs network. The cross section SEM of (l) CNTs/PU twisted yarn and (m) amplification image of section [112]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

4.3 Fancy twisting

Based on conventional sheath–core and helical structures, novel fancy twisted structure was fabricated to improve both mechanical and strain sensing properties. It has exhibited the advantage of complex structure design, which can meet the requirements of different strain sensing applications. Shang et al. [114] fabricated a straight-helical-straight hybrid structure yarn strain sensor with enhanced electromechanical properties. Compared with long all-helical yarn, short segment with finite loops was incorporated into a straight yarn to produce partial-helical structure. The yarn exhibited good elasticity and resilience under suitable strains and linear resistance–strain relationship. Zhong et al. [115] fabricated an active fiber-based strain sensor consisting of different threads modified by carbon nanotube, as shown in Figure 10(a). These threads were entangled to produce double-helical structured yarn, and then the threads were wrapped around silicone filament to form core–sheath yarn strain sensor. For stretchable wearable device, the wrapped threads can be used as the elastic components because of the unique spring deformation. Bi-sheath buckled structure was also designed to increase the contact between adjacent buckles, in which two layers of buckled carbon nanotube sheets and buckled rubber interlayer coaxially existed on the elastic filament [116]. These sheets were totally contacted with the rotating rubber filament to obtain a well-linear resistance–strain dependence. Lu et al. [117] developed carbon nanotube/rubber core-sheath yarn with double-leveled helical gaps, in which electrically conducting fibers were wrapped around a highly stretchable core filament, as shown in Figure 10(b–e). The yarn was used to detect ultralow strain of 0.01% with a wide sensing range (>200%), rapid response (<70 ms), and excellent repeatability (20,000 cycles). The yarn is a promising strain sensing sensor to monitor both subtle and vigorous movement. Recently, Wang et al. [118] deposited MXene sensing layer on spring-like helical core–sheath yarn consisting of polyurethane and polyester. The fabricated strain sensor was used to detect both strain and humidity because of the capillarity and intrinsic hydrophilic effects.

Figure 10 (a) Schematic diagram of stretchable self-powered yarn strain sensor [115]; (b–e) schematic illustration and morphology of the yarn sensor under stretching and releasing conditions [117]. (a) Copyright 2015, Wiley; (b–e) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.
Figure 10

(a) Schematic diagram of stretchable self-powered yarn strain sensor [115]; (b–e) schematic illustration and morphology of the yarn sensor under stretching and releasing conditions [117]. (a) Copyright 2015, Wiley; (b–e) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

5 Conclusion

In the present work, a critical review has been gathered on the recent advances of yarn strain sensor. Various fabrication methods of yarn strain sensors including dip-coating, layer by layer assemble, chemical deposition coating, melt extrusion, and wet spinning have been introduced. To prepare strain sensors for potential wearable electronics, it is essential to generate electrical conductivity on a yarn. The conductivity can be achieved by depositing conductive layer on the surface or incorporating conductive components into matrix materials. In this review, the fabrication of sheath–core yarn strain sensor with improved strain sensing properties was also gathered. In comparison with conventional yarn strain sensor, the unique sheath–core structure is beneficial to increase both elasticity and mechanical strength. According to reported studies, it can be stated that textile spinning technique is an effective tool to prepare stretchable strain sensor. In the future, yarn-based strain with novel structure and sensing efficiency will be designed and further engineered to develop large scalable, highly sensitive, stretchable, durable, and reliable wearable electronic devices.

These authors contributed equally to this work.

  1. Funding information: The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province (2019CFB557); Science and Technology Research Projects of Department of Education Hubei Province (B2020073); Hubei Biomass Fibers and Eco-dyeing & Finishing Key Laboratory (STRZ201901); State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Donghua University (KF1827); State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Qingdao University (KF2020214); Key Laboratory of Eco-textiles, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University (KLET2009).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2020-12-21
Accepted: 2021-03-26
Published Online: 2021-04-26

© 2021 Xiaoning Tang et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2021-0021
Keywords for this article
strain sensor; conductive; coating; core–sheath
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Improved impedance matching by multi-componential metal-hybridized rGO toward high performance of microwave absorption
  3. Pure-silk fibroin hydrogel with stable aligned micropattern toward peripheral nerve regeneration
  4. Effective ion pathways and 3D conductive carbon networks in bentonite host enable stable and high-rate lithium–sulfur batteries
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  87. Study of gold nanoparticles’ preparation through ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation for possible use as markers in LFIA tests
  88. Review Articles
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  90. Development of ionic liquid-based electroactive polymer composites using nanotechnology
  91. Nanostructured multifunctional electrocatalysts for efficient energy conversion systems: Recent perspectives
  92. Recent advances on the fabrication methods of nanocomposite yarn-based strain sensor
  93. Review on nanocomposites based on aerospace applications
  94. Overview of nanocellulose as additives in paper processing and paper products
  95. The frontiers of functionalized graphene-based nanocomposites as chemical sensors
  96. Material advancement in tissue-engineered nerve conduit
  97. Carbon nanostructure-based superhydrophobic surfaces and coatings
  98. Functionalized graphene-based nanocomposites for smart optoelectronic applications
  99. Interfacial technology for enhancement in steel fiber reinforced cementitious composite from nano to macroscale
  100. Metal nanoparticles and biomaterials: The multipronged approach for potential diabetic wound therapy
  101. Review on resistive switching mechanisms of bio-organic thin film for non-volatile memory application
  102. Nanotechnology-enabled biomedical engineering: Current trends, future scopes, and perspectives
  103. Research progress on key problems of nanomaterials-modified geopolymer concrete
  104. Smart stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for the cancer therapy – nanomedicine
  105. An overview of methods for production and detection of silver nanoparticles, with emphasis on their fate and toxicological effects on human, soil, and aquatic environment
  106. Effects of chemical modification and nanotechnology on wood properties
  107. Mechanisms, influencing factors, and applications of electrohydrodynamic jet printing
  108. Application of antiviral materials in textiles: A review
  109. Phase transformation and strengthening mechanisms of nanostructured high-entropy alloys
  110. Research progress on individual effect of graphene oxide in cement-based materials and its synergistic effect with other nanomaterials
  111. Catalytic defense against fungal pathogens using nanozymes
  112. A mini-review of three-dimensional network topological structure nanocomposites: Preparation and mechanical properties
  113. Mechanical properties and structural health monitoring performance of carbon nanotube-modified FRP composites: A review
  114. Nano-scale delivery: A comprehensive review of nano-structured devices, preparative techniques, site-specificity designs, biomedical applications, commercial products, and references to safety, cellular uptake, and organ toxicity
  115. Effects of alloying, heat treatment and nanoreinforcement on mechanical properties and damping performances of Cu–Al-based alloys: A review
  116. Recent progress in the synthesis and applications of vertically aligned carbon nanotube materials
  117. Thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity of mono and hybrid organic- and synthetic-based nanofluids: A critical review
  118. Recent advances in waste-recycled nanomaterials for biomedical applications: Waste-to-wealth
  119. Layup sequence and interfacial bonding of additively manufactured polymeric composite: A brief review
  120. Quantum dots synthetization and future prospect applications
  121. Approved and marketed nanoparticles for disease targeting and applications in COVID-19
  122. Strategies for improving rechargeable lithium-ion batteries: From active materials to CO2 emissions
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