Abstract
This corpus-driven computational study addresses the question of why some verbs in some languages participate in the causative alternation while their counterparts in other languages do not. The results of this study suggest that the lexical property that underlies this variation is the probability of external causation. Alternating verbs are distributed on a scale of increasing probability for an external causer to occur. The probability of external causation can be empirically assessed in two ways, among others: first, by observing the typological distribution of causative and anticausative morphological markings across a wide range of languages; second, through the frequency distribution of causative and anticausative uses of the alternating verbs in a corpus of a single language. Our study reveals that these two measures are correlated. Moreover, we demonstrate that the corpus-based measure is applicable to a wide range of verbs. Extending the corpus-based investigation comparatively across two languages, English and German, we find that the frequencies of crosslinguistic realizations of lexical causatives are modulated by the probability of external causation, an underlying parameter assigned to verb types. Finally, we propose a probabilistic graphical model that clusters verbs based on the relation between the crosslinguistic distribution of their causative and anticausative realizations and the probability of external causation.
References
Aboh, Enoch. 2009. Clause structure and verb series. Linguistic Inquiry 40(1). 1–33.10.1162/ling.2009.40.1.1Search in Google Scholar
Alexiadou, Artemis. 2006. On (anti-)causative alternations. Paper presented at Ecole d’automne de linguistique, Paris: University of Stuttgart.Search in Google Scholar
Alexiadou, Artemis. 2010. On the morpho-syntax of (anti-)causative verbs. In Malka Rappaport Hovav, Edit Doron & Ivy Sichel (eds.), Syntax, lexical semantics and event structure, 177–203. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199544325.003.0009Search in Google Scholar
Alexiadou, Artemis. 2014. The problem with internally caused change-of-state verbs. Linguistics 52(4). 879–909.10.1515/ling-2014-0011Search in Google Scholar
Alexiadou, Artemis, Elena Anagnostopoulou & Florian Schäfer. 2006. The properties of anticausatives crosslinguistically. In Mara Frascarelli (ed.), Phases of interpretation, 187–212. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110197723.4.187Search in Google Scholar
Alexiadou, Artemis, Elena Anagnostopoulou & Florian Schäfer. 2015. External arguments in transitivity alternations: A layering approach (Oxford studies in Theoretical Linguistics). Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199571949.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Alexiadou, Artemis & Edit Doron. 2012. The syntactic construction of two non-active voices: Passive and middle. Journal of Linguistics 48. 1–34.10.1017/S0022226711000338Search in Google Scholar
Alsina, Alex. 1997. A theory of complex predicates: Evidence from causatives in Bantu and Romance. In Alex Alsina, Joan Bresnan & Peter Sells (eds.), Complex predicates, 203–247. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.Search in Google Scholar
Baker, Mark C. 1988. Incorporation: A theory of grammatical function changing. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press.Search in Google Scholar
Baroni, Marco & Silvia Bernardini. 2006. A new approach to the study of translationese: Machine-learning the difference between original and translated text. Literary and Linguistic Computing 21(3). 259–274.10.1093/llc/fqi039Search in Google Scholar
Bouma, Gerlof, Lilja Øvrelid & Jonas Kuhn. 2010. Towards a large parallel corpus of cleft constructions. In Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on International Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’10), Valletta: European Language Resources Association.Search in Google Scholar
Bowerman, Melissa & William Croft. 2008. The acquisition of the English causative alternation. In Melissa Bowerman & Penelope Brown (eds.), Crosslinguistic perspectives on argument structure: Implications for learnability, 279–306. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.Search in Google Scholar
Chierchia, Gennaro. 2004. A semantics for unaccusatives and its syntactic consequences. In Artemis Alexiadou, Elena Anagnostopoulou & Martin Everaert (eds.), The unaccusativity puzzle, 22–59. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199257652.003.0002Search in Google Scholar
Collins, Chris. 1997. Argument sharing in serial verb constructions. Linguistic Inquiry 28. 461–497.Search in Google Scholar
Dempster, Arthur P., Nan M. Laird & Donald B. Rubin. 1977. Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM algorithm. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B 39(1). 1–38.Search in Google Scholar
Dryer, Matthew S. & Martin Haspelmath (eds.). 2013. WALS online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://wals.info/Search in Google Scholar
Hale, Ken & Jay Keyser. 1993. On argument structure and the lexical representation of syntactic relations. In Ken Hale & Jay Keyser (eds.), The View from Building 20, 53–110. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Haspelmath, Martin. 1993. More on typology of inchoative/causative verb alternations. In Bernard Comrie & Maria Polinsky (eds.), Causatives and transitivity, vol. 23, 87–121. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/slcs.23.05hasSearch in Google Scholar
Haspelmath, Martin. 2008. Frequency vs. iconicity in explaining grammatical asymmetries. Cognitive Linguistics 19(1). 1–33.10.1515/COG.2008.001Search in Google Scholar
Haspelmath, Martin, Andreea Calude, Michael Spagnol, Heiko Narrog & Elif Bamyac. 2014. Coding causal-noncausal verb alternations: A form-frequency correspondence explanation. Journal of Linguistics 50(3). 587–625.10.1017/S0022226714000255Search in Google Scholar
Hawkins, John A. 1986. A comparative typology of English and German: Unifying the contrasts. London & Sydney: Croom Helm.Search in Google Scholar
Heidinger, Steffen. 2015. Causalness and the encoding of the causative–Anticausative alternation in French and Spanish. Journal of Linguistics 51(3). 562–594.10.1017/S0022226714000607Search in Google Scholar
Horvath, Julia & Tal Siloni. 2011. Anticausatives: Against reflexivization. Lingua 121. 2176–2186.10.1016/j.lingua.2011.09.006Search in Google Scholar
Kallulli, Dalina. 2006. A unified analysis of passives, anticausatives and reflexives. In Olivier Bonami & Patricia Cabredo Hofherr (eds.), Empirical issues in formal syntax and semantics, 271–301. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.Search in Google Scholar
Kayne, Richard. 2005. Some notes on comparative syntax, with special reference to English and French. In Giglielmo Cinque & Richard S. Kayne (eds.), The Oxford handbook of comparative syntax, 3–69. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Koehn, Philipp. 2005. Europarl: A parallel corpus for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the tenth Machine Translation Summit, 79–86. Phuket: Asia-Pacific Association for Machine Translation.Search in Google Scholar
Koontz-Garboden, Andrew. 2009. Anticausativization. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 27(1). 77–138.10.1007/s11049-008-9058-9Search in Google Scholar
Levin, Beth. 1993. English verb classes and alternations: A preliminary investigation. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Search in Google Scholar
Levin, Beth. 2009. Further explorations of the landscape of causation: Comments on the paper by Alexiadou and Anagnostopoulou. In Proceedings of the workshop on Greek syntax and semantics (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 49), 239–266. Cambridge, MA: MIT Department of Linguistics and Philosophy.Search in Google Scholar
Levin, Beth & Malka Rappaport Hovav. 1994. A preliminary analysis of causative verbs in English. Lingua 92. 35–77.10.1016/0024-3841(94)90337-9Search in Google Scholar
Levin, Beth & Malka Rappaport Hovav. 1995. Unaccusativity: At the syntax-lexical semantics interface. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Levin, Beth & Malka Rappaport Hovav. 2013. Lexicalized meaning and manner/result complementarity. In Boban Arsenijević, Berit Gehrke & Rafael Marín (eds.), Subatomic semantics of event predicates, 49–70. Dordrecht: Springer.10.1007/978-94-007-5983-1_3Search in Google Scholar
Marelj, Marijana. 2004. Middles and argument structure across languages. Utrecht: LOT.Search in Google Scholar
Merlo, Paola & Susanne Stevenson. 2001. Automatic verb classification based on statistical distribution of argument structure. Computational Linguistics 27(3). 373–408.10.1162/089120101317066122Search in Google Scholar
Nichols, Johanna, David Peterson & Jonathan Barnes. 2004. Transitivizing and detransitivizing languages. Linguistic Typology 8. 149–212.10.1515/lity.2004.005Search in Google Scholar
Nivre, Joakim, Johan Hall, Jens Nilsson, Chanev Atanas, Gülsen Eryigit, Sandra Kübler, Svetoslav Marinov & Erwin Marsi. 2007. MaltParser: A language-independent system for data-driven dependency parsing. Natural Language Engineering 13(2). 95–135.10.1017/S1351324906004505Search in Google Scholar
Och, Franz Josef & Hermann Ney. 2003. A systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models. Computational Linguistics 29(1). 19–52.10.1162/089120103321337421Search in Google Scholar
Pado, Sebastian. 2007. Cross-lingual annotation projection models for role-semantic information. Saarbrücken: University of the Saarland dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Palmer, Martha, Daniel Gildea & Paul Kingsbury. 2005. The Proposition Bank: An annotated corpus of semantic roles. Computational Linguistics 31(1). 71–105.10.1162/0891201053630264Search in Google Scholar
Piñón, Christopher. 2001. A finer look at the causative-inchoative alternation. In Brendan Jackson, Rachel Hastings & Zsofia Zvolenszky (eds.), Proceedings of semantics and linguistic theory, vol. 11, 346–364. Ithaca, NY: CLC Publications.10.3765/salt.v11i0.2858Search in Google Scholar
Rappaport Hovav, Malka. 2014. Lexical content and context: The causative alternation in English revisited. Lingua 141. 8–29.10.1016/j.lingua.2013.09.006Search in Google Scholar
Rappaport Hovav, Malka & Beth Levin. 2012. Lexicon uniformity and the causative alternation. In Martin Everaert, Marijana Mareli & Tal Siloni (eds.), The theta system, 150–176. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199602513.003.0006Search in Google Scholar
Reinhart, Tanya. 2002. The theta system – An overview. Theoretical linguistics 28. 229–290.10.1515/thli.28.3.229Search in Google Scholar
Reinhart, Tanya & Tal Siloni. 2004. Against the unaccusative analysis of reflexives. In Artemis Alexiadou, Elena Anagnostopoulou & Martin Everaert (eds.), The unaccusativity puzzle: Studies on the syntax-lexicon interface, 159–181. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199257652.003.0007Search in Google Scholar
Russell, Stuart J. & Peter Norvig. 2010. Artificial intelligence: A modern approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Pearson.Search in Google Scholar
Samardžić, Tanja & Paola Merlo. 2010. Cross-linguistic variation of light verb constructions: Using parallel corpora and automatic alignment for linguistic research. In Proceedings of the workshop of the ACL workshop NLP and Linguistics: finding the common ground, 52–60. Uppsala: Association for Computational Linguistics.Search in Google Scholar
Samardžić, Tanja & Paola Merlo. 2012. The meaning of lexical causatives in cross-linguistic variation. Linguistic Issues in Language Technology 7(12). 1–14.10.33011/lilt.v7i.1281Search in Google Scholar
Samardžić, Tanja & Paola Merlo. 2014. Likelihood of external causation in the structure of events. In Proceedings of the EACL Workshop on Computational Approaches to Causality in Language, 40–47. Gothenburg: Association for Computational Linguistics.10.3115/v1/W14-0706Search in Google Scholar
Schäfer, Florian. 2008. The syntax of (anti-)causatives: External arguments in change-of-state contexts. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/la.126Search in Google Scholar
Schäfer, Florian. 2009. The causative alternation. In Language and linguistics compass, 3(2), 641–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2009.00127.x10.1111/j.1749-818X.2009.00127.xSearch in Google Scholar
Stevenson, Suzanne & Paola Merlo. 1997. Lexical structure and parsing complexity. Language and Cognitive Processes 12(2/3). 349–399.10.1080/016909697386880Search in Google Scholar
Williams, Edwin. 1997. Lexical and syntactic complex predicates. In Alex Alsina, Joan Bresnan & Peter Sells (eds.), Complex predicates, 13–29. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.Search in Google Scholar
Wolff, Phillip, Ga-Hyun Jeon & Yu Li. 2009a. Causal agents in English, Korean and Chinese: The role of internal and external causation. Language and Cognition 12(2). 165–194.Search in Google Scholar
Wolff, Phillip & Tatyana Ventura. 2009b. When Russians learn English: How the semantics of causation may change. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 12(2). 153–176.10.1017/S1366728909004040Search in Google Scholar
© 2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- The probability of external causation: An empirical account of crosslinguistic variation in lexical causatives
- Why use or?
- Utterance-final particle -canha in modern spoken Korean: A marker of shared knowledge, (im)politeness, theticity and mirativity
- Strong pronouns in modern spoken French: Cliticization, constructionalization, grammaticalization?
- Korean converbs between coordination and subordination
- Asymmetries of null subjects and null objects in L1-English and L1-Japanese learners’ Chinese
- Synaesthesia in Chinese: A corpus-based study on gustatory adjectives in Mandarin
- Publications received between 2 June 2017 and 1 June 2018
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- The probability of external causation: An empirical account of crosslinguistic variation in lexical causatives
- Why use or?
- Utterance-final particle -canha in modern spoken Korean: A marker of shared knowledge, (im)politeness, theticity and mirativity
- Strong pronouns in modern spoken French: Cliticization, constructionalization, grammaticalization?
- Korean converbs between coordination and subordination
- Asymmetries of null subjects and null objects in L1-English and L1-Japanese learners’ Chinese
- Synaesthesia in Chinese: A corpus-based study on gustatory adjectives in Mandarin
- Publications received between 2 June 2017 and 1 June 2018