Exploring pre-service foreign language teachers’ intention to adopt technology: an investigation from the perspective of Situated Expectancy-Value Theory

4.3.1 Reliability of the questionnaire

For this study, a two-section online questionnaire was developed. Section 1 was self-reported demographic information, which included the gender, age, and university of the pre-service teachers. Seven construct scales from previously validated instruments made up Section 2. Each item on the survey was scored on a Likert scale from 1 to 7, representing answers ranging from completely disagree to completely agree. The construct of SI was examined by 4 items assessing external attitudes towards pre-service foreign language teachers’ use of educational technology and their perception of these external subjective norms (An et al. 2023). The SE dimension was surveyed with 4 items assessing pre-service foreign language teachers’ confidence in using educational technology (Sharma and Srivastava 2019). Two emotion-related constructs, namely, PE and PA, were evaluated through 5 and 6 items, respectively, gauging the level of interest and anxiety perceived by pre-service foreign language teachers in the process of technology-assisted teaching (Baydas and Goktas 2017; Ranellucci et al. 2020). The last motivational factor, UI, was examined by 6 items to investigate pre-service foreign language teachers’ assessment and acknowledgment of the role of technology in enhancing their professional development and realizing their career ambition (Gan et al. 2022). MS was assessed through 4 items probing teacher candidates’ attitudes toward whether educational technology contributes to their teaching or other professional skills (Bai et al. 2019). The PIAT was evaluated through 4 items exploring pre-service foreign language teachers’ inclination to use technological means in teaching practices (An et al. 2023; Sun and Mei 2020). With high Cronbach’s α coefficients ranging from 0.88 to 0.90, all the original constructs were demonstrated to be internally consistent (see Table 1). The adapted items of the scales are listed in Appendix A.

4.3.2 Content validity of the questionnaire

After translating the original English questionnaires into Chinese and carefully reviewing the translated version to ensure accurate conveyance of each item’s meaning, we engaged two educational technology experts to refine all instruments, ensuring no critical components were overlooked given the current online teaching context. Subsequently, a pilot study was conducted among five undergraduate students specializing in English Education. Based on the pre-survey results and subsequent interviews, additional linguistic adjustments were implemented.

To ensure the content validity of the questionnaire. We employed an expert rating method, inviting six researchers to assess the relevance of each item to its corresponding dimension using a 4-point scale (see Table 2). The scale ranged from 1 to 4, representing “irrelevant”, “weakly relevant”, “moderately relevant”, and “highly relevant”, respectively. The expert ratings indicated excellent content validity indexes for both the overall scale and individual items (S-CVI = 0.94 ≥ 0.90, I-CVI = 0.83–1.00 ≥ 0.78, K* = 0.82–1.00 > 0.74), suggesting that there was no need to exclude any item (Hambleton et al. 1978; Polit et al. 2007).

5.2.1 Model fit of measurement model (CFA)

To assess model fit, several indices were utilized, including the Chi-square value (CMIN), degrees of freedom (df), the ratio of CMIN to its degrees of freedom (CMIN/df), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI), and Tucker–Lewis index (TLI). According to the commonly recommended criteria (see Table 4), these fit indices indicate a good fit for the measurement model (Hu and Bentler 1999).

5.2.2 Convergent validity

To evaluate the convergent validity of the measurement items in this study, we employed item reliability, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). Item reliability indicates how well an item represents its underlying construct. A factor loading (Std.) of 0.70 or higher is recommended, with square multiple correlations (SMC) ideally being 0.50 or above (Hair et al. 2014; Cheung et al. 2023). In this study, factor loadings (Std.) for all items ranged from 0.72 to 0.93, and the lowest SMC was 0.52, indicating good reliability for each item. CR assesses the internal consistency of items within a construct, with a recommended threshold of 0.70 (Hair et al. 2014). AVE, an essential indicator of convergent validity, measures the overall amount of variance in the items accounted for by the construct. An AVE value of 0.50 or higher is considered acceptable. The AVE values for all constructs ranged from 0.64 to 0.83, indicating adequate convergent validity for each construct. All CR values in this study exceeded 0.80, demonstrating strong internal consistency (see Table 5).

5.2.3 Discriminant validity

Discriminant validity ensures that a measure is distinct from other measures. According to Henseler et al. (2015), a construct demonstrates discriminant validity if its square root of AVE is greater than its correlations with other constructs. In this study, the correlations of variables off the diagonal were lower than the square root of AVE for each construct on the diagonal (see Table 6), indicating that the selected constructs had adequate discriminant validity.

5.3.1 Model fit of structural model

As a whole, the research model exhibited an ideal model fit (see Table 7). All fit indices met the recommended acceptance level of structural model fitness (CMlN/df < 3; CFI, TLI, IFI > 0.90, RMSEA, SRMR < 0.08) (Hu and Bentler 1999).

5.3.2 Tests of hypothesis

Eleven hypotheses out of twelve were supported (i.e., H1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11), except for H5. Among the original variables in the SEVT, PIAT was positively influenced by four motivational factors, namely, SE (β = 0.17***), PE (β = 0.39***), PI (β = 1.38***), and PU (β = 0.24*). MS had a significant influence on PE (β = 0.90***), PI (β = 1.00***), PU (β = 0.92***), and PA (β = −0.30***). Both SE and MS were significantly influenced by SI (β = 0.67***, β = 0.93***). All the path results of the research model are presented in Table 8 and Figure 3.

Figure 3:

Parameter estimates of the research model: R ² (PIAT = 0.89). Notes: *p < 0.05; ***p < 0.001; PIAT = pre-service foreign language teachers’ intentions to adopt technology; SI = social influence; SE = self-efficacy; PE = perceived enjoyment; PI = perceived usefulness; PU = perceived importance; PA = perceived anxiety; MS = mindset.

The R ² were checked to assess the extent to which the proportion of variance in endogenous variables could be explained by the proposed model. According to Figure 3, the model could explain 89 % of the variance in PIAT, suggesting the proposed model in the current study has a stronger explanatory power.

6.1.1 Motivational factors (SE, PE, PU, PI) and PIAT

This study affirms the hypothesis that motivation serves as a driving force for PIAT (Eccles and Wigfield 2023; Huang et al. 2021). However, the predictive effects of motivational factors vary. Specifically, four motivational factors (SE, PE, PU and PI) significantly and positively predict pre-service teachers’ intentions, while PA, though negatively correlated with PIAT, does not play a significant role in predicting pre-service teachers’ intentions. It is reasonable to infer that when English language teacher candidates have a strong motivation towards technology enhanced teaching, their intentions to take part in those tasks requiring the integration of educational technologies will be reinforced (Sharma and Srivastava 2019; Teo et al. 2017). SE pertains to the confidence that pre-service teachers have in their ability to effectively integrate technology into their language teaching practices. It influences both cognitive processes (e.g., decision-making, problem-solving) and the way pre-service teachers engage with professional development opportunities. Pre-service teachers with high SE are better equipped to overcome potential barriers, such as technical difficulties or resistance from students, because they believe in their ability to manage and adapt to these challenges. These confident student teachers are also more likely to seek out and benefit from training programs that enhance their technological skills, further solidifying their intention to adopt technology. Descriptive data suggest that pre-service foreign language teachers demonstrate a high level of technology SE, which paves the way for their trials to apply technological tools (Li 2014; Li and Walsh 2011). To further boost pre-service teachers’ SE, teacher educators and training institutions can provide targeted technology training courses and assign pedagogical tasks requiring technology use. By providing more opportunities for practical application of educational technology, it is probably for the teacher candidates to overcome anxiety and psychological barriers associated with instructional technology use.

The intrinsic motivation of PE is characterized by a desire to engage in technology-enhanced teaching for its inherent satisfaction rather than seeking external rewards. A significant positive relationship between PE and PIAT has been established, reflecting the idea that when pre-service teachers experience positive affective responses – such as pleasure and interest – in educational technology, they are more likely to view its integration into language teaching as an enjoyable and active pursuit (Huang et al. 2021). This positive perception can inspire them to delve deeper into understanding the potential of technology-assisted language teaching, thereby enhancing the overall teaching experience and creating a more engaging and dynamic learning environment. Such an environment can, in turn, increase their intention to adopt technology (Bai et al. 2019; Plonsky and Ziegler 2016). Furthermore, PE is associated with deep concentration and heightened engagement with an activity, potentially leading to cognitive absorption. This state of absorption can result in pre-service teachers becoming so engrossed in using technology that they are more likely to continue using it and express an intention to do so in the future (Teo et al. 2017). Descriptive data from this study indicated that pre-service foreign language teachers possess a high level of PE when it comes to adopting educational technology. This suggested that, those pre-service English teachers involved in our study find utilizing educational technologies in teaching is an appealing and fulfilling practice. To foster interest-driven adoption of technology, it is imperative for educational institutions and teacher educators to create diverse practice platforms, design realistic teaching scenarios, and formulate challenging tasks that necessitate the instructional use of technology. These measures can stimulate enthusiasm among pre-service teachers for participating in the interest-driven adoption of educational technologies, and explore its potential applications in their future teaching practices (Hughes et al. 2020).

Two instrumental motivational factors (i.e., PU and PI) also proved to be significant predictors of PIAT. This can be explained by technology’s positive impact on pedagogical effectiveness and professional development. From a theoretical standpoint, this positive causal relationship between PU and PIAT echoes the proposed path within technology acceptance models and SEVT. These theoretical frameworks suggest that when individuals believed the utilization of technology will enhance their teaching performance, improve the quality of their work, or provide other pedagogical and professional benefits, they are more likely to adopt it (Eccles and Wigfield 2020). For example, if pre-service foreign language teachers perceive that adopting technologies (e.g., digital teaching tools, online resources) will help them better adapt to future education trends or enhance their competitiveness in the job market, they would embrace the adoption of technology in a more willing manner. From a pedagogical perspective, technology facilitates personalized learning, instant feedback, and access to diverse resources, crucial for language acquisition. When pre-service teachers recognize these benefits (PU), their intention to integrate technology increases (Hughes et al. 2020; Teo et al. 2017). Additionally, technology makes learning more interactive and engaging, and if teachers perceive it can make lessons more appealing (PI), they are more inclined to use it. From a professional perspective, PU encompasses the belief that technology enhances teaching skills, classroom management, and overall effectiveness, while PI highlights the importance of keeping up with educational trends and future demands to win more opportunities in the future professional development. When teachers see the importance and usefulness of being technologically adept, their intention to adopt technology rises (Kale and Akcaoglu 2018; Sun and Mei 2020).The descriptive data show that most teachers recognized the value of technology tools in helping them achieve teaching goals and the indispensable role of digital and information-based teaching models in teacher professional development (M _PI = 5.80; M _PU = 5.56). This highlights the necessity of supporting teacher candidates in conducting technology-assisted language teaching practices to enhance their rational recognition of educational technology so that teachers can fully tap into the potential of educational technology to enhance teaching efficiency (Gan et al. 2022).

6.1.2 MS and motivational factors (PE, PI, PU, PA)

In line with the relationships explained in the SEVT, a significant effect of MS was found on PE, PI, PU, and PA, where MS was positively associated with PE, PI, and PU, and negatively with PA. Pre-service teachers with a growth MS tend to view challenges as opportunities for growth, thus leading to greater PE from using technology, as they are more likely to embrace the learning process involved in mastering new tools. The positive MS and open-mindedness also lead to a broader recognition of technology in education (PI), such as its role in preparing students for the modern world. In terms of PA, when teachers view challenges as surmountable, they are less likely to feel anxious about using new technologies and more likely to seek out and overcome initial difficulties. The more positive the teachers’ mindsets are, the more anxiety will be mitigated (Dweck and Yeager 2019). This finding aligns with the research hypothesis based on the SEVT, suggesting that rather than directly leading to a strong intention to apply educational technology, MS influences teachers’ intentions to participate in technology-assisted language teaching by activating their motivation (Haukas and Mercer 2022). Consistent with other empirical studies (Bai et al. 2019; Teo et al. 2017), the MS of pre-service foreign language teachers significantly influenced the motivational factors (i.e., PE, PI, PU, PA). Specifically, MS acts as teachers’ psychological resilience and ability to handle pressure, reflecting their attitude toward challenges in pedagogical practice and their capacity for self-regulation in the face of setbacks. This was found to be closely associated with teachers’ confidence, enjoyment and evaluation of the importance and usefulness of the educational technologies (Sharma and Srivastava 2019). In the context of digitalized teaching, pre-service teachers with a growth MS (more positive) are more likely to proactively enhance their motivation to adopt technology (Nikou and Economides 2019; Richardson et al. 2020). In contrast, teachers with fixed MS often resist attempting to use technology due to demotivation (Lou and Noels 2019; Ozdemir and Papi 2022).

6.1.3 SI and SE

The SEVT highlights the importance of observation and modeling in shaping the learning process. For pre-service teachers, witnessing the adept integration of technology by experienced educators can significantly boost their SE, reinforcing their belief in their ability to emulate such successful practices. Such observations provide a blueprint for prospective teachers, allowing them to envision themselves effectively utilizing technology through role-taking, which subsequently strengthens their self-efficacy and their commitment to technological integration. Research indicates that SI in the form of observed proficiency with technology offers informational support that alleviates concerns about adopting new tools (Gan et al. 2022; Sun and Mei 2020). Normative SI can motivate pre-service teachers to adopt technology to conform to group norms and achieve social validation. When there is a collective recognition of the educational value of technology, it is likely to cultivate a stronger intention among pre-service teachers to integrate it into their instructional repertoire. The encouragement and support from educational peers, mentors, and leaders can further enhance the self-efficacy of these prospective educators. This support provides the confidence necessary to overcome the challenges associated with technology adoption (Sharma and Srivastava 2019; Teo et al. 2017). By drawing on the experiences of their peers, pre-service teachers can assess the potential benefits and obstacles of technology use, which can further reinforce their self-efficacy. The positive correlation between SI and SE suggests that the shared values, knowledge, and practices within an educational community represent a form of cultural capital that promotes the adoption of technology. When pre-service teachers are part of an environment that embraces technological innovation, they are more likely to develop heightened self-efficacy and a stronger intention to adopt educational technology. This cultural context serves as a foundation that nurtures the integration of technological advancements in education, preparing pre-service teachers to effectively leverage these tools in their future teaching practices.

6.1.4 SI and MS

The study’s findings underscore the substantial and affirmative impact of SI on the MS of pre-service foreign language teachers concerning the adoption of educational technology. SI, predicated on the tenets of observational learning, facilitates the acquisition of skills through the observation, imitation, and emulation of others’ behaviors (Sun and Mei 2020). For novice educators, the sight of seasoned peers or mentors adeptly merging technology into their pedagogy sets a compelling and constructive precedent. Such witnessing not only exemplifies the tangible benefits of technology in education but also inculcates a positive mental posture toward its adoption (Baydas and Goktas 2017). This learning through observation is amplified by the attribution of success to the efficacy of technology or to the individual’s capability to adeptly harness it, thereby reinforcing a favorable inclination toward technological integration (Vongkulluksn et al. 2018).

Descriptive statistical analysis from the study reveals that prospective English teachers exhibit a heightened sensitivity to SI, with an average score of 5.31, denoting a pronounced vulnerability to the sway of SI in the realm of technology adoption. This pronounced susceptibility is attributable to their developmental phase, marked by a propensity for novel concepts and methodologies. The nascent stage of their professional journey is replete with the quest for mentorship and exemplary teaching paradigms, rendering them particularly open to SI’ s impact (Colognesi and Hanin 2023). Moreover, the informational scaffolding proffered by their social networks aids in diminishing apprehensions regarding technology and augments their affinity for its application. Within the collectivist cultural milieu of China, which prioritizes communal endeavor and shared objectives, the collective endorsement of technology by educational communities molds a MS that acknowledges its significance in advancing collective interests in educational instruction (Huang et al. 2023).

In summation, SI emerges as a pivotal catalyst in sculpting the MS of prospective foreign language teachers toward the adoption of technology. The amalgam of observational learning, the attribution of successful outcomes, and the supportive cultural milieu of educational communities collectively cultivate a positive MS (Hodges et al. 2022). Once this MS acknowledges the practicality and accessibility of technology, it propels these teachers to assimilate it into their pedagogical strategies, underscoring the cardinal role of SI in equipping educational professionals to embrace technology as a potent teaching instrument. It is imperative for teacher educators and institutions to foster the engagement of pre-service teachers in technology-enriched teaching environments, supplying them with vital technical and psychological support. By nurturing a community of practice among pre-service teachers, there lies an opportunity to not only amplify the allure of technological learning but also to diversify digital learning experiences. Such initiatives hold the potential to markedly bolster pre-service teachers’ zeal and proclivity toward language teaching augmented by technology (Salleh 2016).