A systematic review of the use of virtual reality in teaching Chinese as a foreign language

2.1 Identification of journal articles

This review paper relied on journal articles as the primary source of information due to their reputation for providing in-depth and up-to-date scholarly information (Dublin City University, 2022). An extensive search process was undertaken to select relevant journal articles. High-quality peer-reviewed journal articles on the use of VR in TCFL were identified using Scopus as the primary database in the initial stage, followed by Web of Science in the second stage, to maximise the richness and reliability of the search results. For the current review, articles were selected based on two primary screening criteria: (1) they were published in English and (2) they reported on empirical projects conducted at the university level. The identified journal articles provided essential resources for the current project. A keyword search method was employed to ensure a comprehensive search. The selected keywords were directly related to TCFL and were based on a thorough understanding of the research field and concept of keywords. They aided in identifying the main themes of the reviewed articles and gaining insights into the research questions.

2.2 Data coding and analysis

The current review analysed 14 journal articles. Table 3 describes the coding and analysis process used in the study. It involved systematically categorising and organising the data into themes to identify patterns and relationships. The coding process was divided into two stages. In the first stage, the researcher coded the data from the first two articles. This stage involved carefully going through the articles and systematically categorising the findings under themes. The researcher analysed the coded data to ensure that he had accurately captured the main ideas and concepts in the articles. He then finalised the codes to ensure that they would work effectively for the other 12 reviewed articles. In the second stage, he coded and analysed the other 12 reviewed articles. The findings were categorised into themes for the data presentation and discussion. The researcher also identified patterns and relationships across the articles, which helped in developing a conceptual understanding of the issues (Hennink et al., 2011). This stage involved a more detailed analysis of the data.

Table 4 presents the coding framework used to review the research on the use of VR in TCFL. The framework was organised according to the four research questions (RQ1, RQ2, RQ3, RQ4) posed in this review. It also consisted of the main categories and sub-categories of data collected for each research question. For RQ1, the main category was “publication trends”, and the sub-categories were “years of publication” and “associated journals”. This helped in identifying the time frame and relevant journals for the research review. For RQ2, the main categories were “research settings” and “research methods”. The sub-categories under research settings were “participants” and “VR platforms”, and those under research methods were “research designs” and “data collection tools”. For RQ3, the sub-categories under “effectiveness” were “linguistic growth” and “communication skills”, and those under “benefits” were “learner motivation” and “authentic learning context”. For RQ4, the main category was “implications and areas for future research”, and the sub-categories were “pedagogical implications” and “future directions and recommendations for this field of research and practice”.

3.1 Publication trends of reviewed articles

The publication dates of the reviewed articles indicate a time span from 2010 to 2023 (see Appendix A). This suggests that interest in the use of VR for TCFL has been steadily increasing over the years, with researchers and educators constantly exploring new ideas and applications. In the earlier years, from 2010 to 2015, there were fewer studies on this topic, but they were pioneering works that may have helped lay the groundwork for later research. In the more recent years, from 2019 to 2023, there has been an increase in the number of studies on this topic. This trend reflects a growing recognition of the potential of VR for TCFL as well as the increasing availability of VR tools and platforms for educators. The majority of the studies were published in 2019, 2021, and 2022, with the highest number of publications in 2022, indicating a recent surge in interest in the use of VR and immersive technologies in Chinese language education. Figure 1 depicts the annual publications of journal articles related to VR-supported Chinese learning.

Figure 1:

Annual publications of journal articles, relevant to VR supported Chinese learning.

The articles were published in a diverse range of journals covering various topics related to technology and Chinese language learning, indicating a growing interest in the integration of technology into Chinese language education and the multidisciplinary approach taken by researchers in this field. Most of the articles were published in specialised academic journals focused on computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and educational technology, such as Educational Technology Research and Development (3 articles), Computer Assisted Language Learning (2 articles), TechTrends (1 article), and Language Learning & Technology (1 article). The focus of these journals on technology in language education makes them a natural fit for such studies. Some articles were published in general educational technology or communication journals, such as Interactive Learning Environments (1 article), Universal Access in the Information Society (1 article), and SAGE Open (1 article), likely indicating the growing interest in the use of technology for language education beyond the language learning field. Moreover, open access journals may facilitate wider dissemination of the research findings to a broader audience. One article was published in Computational Intelligence & Neuroscience, highlighting the interdisciplinary approach to language learning. This suggests that the use of VR technology in language education is not pertinent only to language education but also to education and technology in general. Figure 1 displays the journals and the corresponding number of relevant articles. While most journals are focused on technology, the diversity of publishing opportunities and the interest in this field suggest a range of perspectives.

3.2 Participants

There was wide variation in the proficiency levels of the participants covered in the 14 reviewed articles on the use of VR in TCFL, ranging from beginners (DeWitt et al., 2022; Lan & Tam, 2022; Lan et al., 2015; Legault et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2022) to advanced (Xie et al., 2019, 2021) and those speaking a heritage language (Lan, 2014). Some studies included participants of varying proficiency levels. For example, Zhang (2022) worked with 11 international students from various countries at the elementary, intermediate, and advanced proficiency levels, while Wang et al. (2021) recruited 28 undergraduate students at the beginner and intermediate levels, and Barrett et al. (2020) worked with 33 learners at the beginner, intermediate, and advanced proficiency levels. Ming et al. (2013) divided their participants into novice, intermediate, and experienced levels based on pronunciation scores. In contrast, Chen and Yuan (2023) did not specify the proficiency levels of their 30 international students of Chinese, and Grant and Huang (2010) worked with 112 first-year Chinese language and culture students in Australia but did not detail their language proficiency levels. These studies can inform the development of effective language teaching methods and materials for participants at different proficiency levels. It was evident that the participants’ language proficiency level was a critical aspect of their background in this field. The reviewed articles encompassed a broad range of sample sizes, with some comprising only six participants (Yang et al., 2022) and others over 100 (Grant & Huang, 2010). The range of sample sizes reflects the diversity of the population of Chinese language learners and provides a diverse set of data from which to draw. However, smaller sample sizes may have less statistical power and may be less representative of the larger population.

Among the 14 reviewed articles, most of the research settings were located in China, the United States, and Australia. This suggests that VR technology has been employed among diverse learning groups across a range of countries. However, a few countries dominate the use of VR in TCFL. Several articles provided information on the origin of their participants. For instance, Zhang (2022) had 11 participants from various countries, including the United Kingdom, Russia, Ghana, South Africa, Morocco, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, and Bangladesh. Yang et al. (2022) had six first-year university students in Australia, while Lan and Tam (2022) had 36 participants from Vietnam. DeWitt et al. (2022) had 30 participants from Malaysia and one from India. The variety of backgrounds provides a rich source of information to better comprehend the multi-faceted aspects of the language learning process. Nonetheless, it also highlights the need for a careful consideration of the context-specific characteristics in order to develop effective language learning strategies and materials as well as the importance of recognising the needs of Chinese language learners from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

3.3 Platforms of VR integrated into TCFL

VR technology has been widely incorporated into various Chinese language courses and programmes to enhance learning outcomes. Specific studies focused on language learning courses and programmes, such as Chinese as a second language vocabulary (Chen & Yuan, 2023; Lan et al., 2015; Legault et al., 2019), Chinese writing (Lan & Tam, 2022), and oral proficiency (Xie et al., 2021). Other projects concentrated on intercultural communication, such as DeWitt et al. (2022). These studies highlighted the potential of VR platforms for language learning and the variety of platforms available for use. For instance, Chen and Yuan (2023) used a Chinese-learning VR app based on Mondly VR and Oculus Quest 2 for vocabulary learning. Zhang (2022) utilised an A-frame framework and JavaScript to construct a virtual supermarket environment. Yang et al. (2022) used a well-developed Second Life site called Chinese Island for language learning. Lan and Tam (2022) used Google Cardboard with a smartphone to watch 360° videos before writing, while DeWitt et al. (2022) used a mobile phone and Google Tour. Xie et al. (2021) used Google Cardboard and Google Expeditions for language learning. Wang et al. (2021) created an immersive 3D virtual environment called Chinese Island using Second Life. Barrett et al. (2020) used Mozilla Hubs as a MUVRLE for language learning. Legault et al. (2019) compared immersive VR and word-paired association for language learning. Xie et al. (2019) studied college students’ use of interactive VR tools for learning Chinese as a foreign language, while Lan et al. (2015) compared traditional and virtual learning environments for Chinese word learning using Second Life. Lan (2014) examined the effectiveness of Second Life in improving the oral output of overseas Chinese students learning Putonghua. Ming et al. (2013) utilised an immersive and interactive Mandarin edutainment system within virtual learning environments to learn Mandarin. The analysis of platforms for TCFL with VR technology revealed a diverse range of options, demonstrating the potential of VR technology to provide immersive language learning experiences for learners of Chinese across language levels and relevant areas and skills in TCFL.

3.4 Research methods

The trends in research design reflect the diverse research approaches adopted to address research questions. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of research questions, there is an increasing trend towards the use of mixed methods that combine qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis processes, as evidenced in some reviewed articles (Chen & Yuan, 2023; Legault et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2021). In addition, qualitative research methods such as case studies (Xie et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2022; Zhang, 2022) were used for in-depth explorations of research questions. However, there was a preference for experimental and quasi-experimental designs (DeWitt et al., 2022; Lan, 2014; Lan & Tam, 2022), which involved manipulating independent variables to determine their effects on dependent variables. Quantitative research methods (Barrett et al., 2020; Grant & Huang, 2010; Ming et al., 2013), such as collecting and analysing numerical data, continued to be used to investigate research questions.

The reviewed studies used different methods and tools to collect data. Chen and Yuan (2023) employed vocabulary tests, a VR-based questionnaire, and interviews to collect both quantitative and qualitative data in a mixed methods approach. Zhang (2022) collected qualitative data through questionnaires and personal interviews. For Yang et al. (2022), the main data sources included audio recordings of students’ communication in VR and interview data. Lan and Tam (2022) used Pearson’s correlation coefficient and interviews in an experimental design. DeWitt et al. (2022) obtained data on students’ learning experience using a survey on learning Chinese culture through VR and interviews. Xie et al. (2021) collected data through oral presentations, class observations, reflection papers, and individual interviews in a sequential explanatory mixed methods design. Wang et al. (2021) used a mixed methods approach by employing a survey and individual and focus group interviews to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. Barrett et al. (2020) used a post-participation questionnaire to measure seven constructs. Legault et al. (2019) collected behavioural performance data through an alternative forced-choice recognition task. Xie et al. (2019) collected data from class observations, reflections, and individual follow-up interviews. Lan et al. (2015) did not specify the data collection tools used, while in Lan (2014), an experimental design was used in Stage 1, and a quantitative approach was employed in Stage 2 to assess performance and attitudes toward Mandarin. Ming et al. (2013) used questionnaires, and Grant and Huang (2010) conducted a post-lesson survey.

The analysis of the data collection tools used in the reviewed articles identified several themes. First, a wide variety of tools were deployed to gather information about students’ learning experiences in the context of VR, including mixed methods approaches, questionnaires, interviews, audio recordings, observations, and correlation coefficients. Qualitative data were commonly collected through questionnaires, interviews, and observations, while quantitative data were collected through vocabulary tests and performance tasks. Second, the articles emphasised the importance of collecting data from multiple sources to gain a comprehensive understanding of the research questions. Third, technologies such as VR and screen recording software were used to collect data. The reviewed articles illustrated the diverse range of data collection tools and methods used in research and underscored the importance of selecting appropriate tools to answer research questions and gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.

3.5 Linguistic growth

Most of the reviewed articles focused on the use of VR technology and immersive learning environments to promote linguistic growth. These articles indicated that technology, particularly VR and immersive environments, can enhance language learning and aid in the development of language skills. They also explored how technology can enhance the student learning experience. According to the articles, the use of VR was shown to have a positive impact on language learning by improving vocabulary retention, communication skills, and cultural understanding. For instance, Chen and Yuan (2023) discovered that VR-based vocabulary learning improved engagement and offered immediate, learner-friendly scaffolding for students. Similarly, Yang et al. (2022) found that VR environments provided a more comfortable and engaging learning experience for language learners, resulting in increased communication confidence. Lan and Tam (2022) suggested that immersive experiences utilising 360° videos enhanced motivation and performance in Chinese language writing. Moreover, several studies highlighted that VR and immersive technologies provide an authentic and contextualised learning experience that can boost language learning. For example, Wang et al. (2021) found that learners of Chinese benefited from interacting with objects and non-player characters on Chinese Island, which reflected “real language” and “real life”. Ming et al. (2013) observed that the open, shared, and interactive properties of VR improved learners’ communication abilities and created a genuine social community. However, some studies identified challenges in the use of VR and immersive technologies for language learning. For instance, Barrett et al. (2020) found that issues with interaction within the virtual environment affected learners’ perceived ease of use of the technology. Similarly, Zhang (2022) noted that limitations relating to the online teaching space, such as network connectivity delays and decreased interaction between students, are potentially impacting the quality and quantity of student interactions.

3.6 Communication skills

Technology has played a significant role in improving intercultural communication abilities, particularly in foreign language instruction. It is evident that technology-based language education can offer a productive and immersive learning experience. A recurring theme in the reviewed articles centred on the utilisation of VR in enhancing intercultural communication proficiency in TCFL. This theme delved into how VR can improve language and cultural competencies, including the ability to communicate effectively with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. VR has been found to be an effective means of enhancing intercultural communication proficiency, boosting vocabulary acquisition, and refining oral and written Mandarin proficiency. For example, DeWitt et al. (2022) explored the use of VR in developing intercultural communication competence in Mandarin and found positive results. Yang et al. (2022) found that virtual experiential language learning environments created a more comfortable, authentic, and engaging learning experience for language learners in their communications, leading to increased confidence in communication and the use of communication strategies such as code-switching, self-repetition, fillers, and expanded response. Lan and Tam (2022) reported that learners of Chinese who had an immersive experience outperformed those who did not and that their motivation in Chinese language writing was enhanced and maintained.

Interactive course design has also been explored in distance international Chinese education (Zhang, 2022). Wang et al. (2021) demonstrated that learners of Chinese benefited from interactions with objects and non-player characters on Chinese Island, which reflected “real language” and “real life” in the target language environment. These findings correspond to Lin and Lan’s (2015) analysis of interactive communication as one of the research trends in language learning in the VR environment. However, some limitations were noted in the use of technology in language learning, such as a decrease in the proportion of interaction among students due to network lag and delay (Zhang, 2022) and difficulties interacting within the virtual environment, which affect learners’ perceived ease of use of the technology (Barrett et al., 2020).

3.7 Learner motivation

Some of the reviewed articles explored the effectiveness of VR in language learning and its potential in enhancing student motivation. Lan and Tam (2022) found that 360° videos increased engagement and motivation in basic Chinese writing, while Zhang (2022) suggested that cognitively inspired distance international Chinese education improved students’ motivation and engagement. Huang et al. (2021) developed a new model of design collaboration among learners and found that it enhanced students’ motivation and engagement in VR 3D modelling. Barrett et al. (2020) investigated the use of the technology acceptance model and multi-user VR learning environments for Chinese language education and found that immersion had a decisive influence on the learners’ perceived usefulness of VR and on their motivation to learn. Legault et al. (2019) found that immersive VR for second language vocabulary learning promoted students’ motivation, engagement, and retention. Overall, these reviewed articles indicate that VR technology has the potential to be an effective and motivating tool for language learners, especially when it offers immersive language learning experiences. Communication, interaction, technology acceptance, and use are some of the key factors that can contribute to the motivation of language learners using VR.

Several themes emerged from the reviewed articles, highlighting the benefits of using VR for language learning. First, the immersive and interactive nature of VR provides a unique and engaging learning experience. It offers a stimulating and interactive learning environment that can increase students’ motivation to learn. VR provides opportunities for collaborative learning, enabling students to work together and learn from each other. Second, the immersive nature of VR allows students to interact with the learning content. VR has been found to enhance language learning retention by providing an interactive and engaging learning environment. Third, the use of VR in TCFL offers students a positive technological experience. The reviewed articles suggest that students are motivated to learn when they have access to technology that they deem engaging and interactive.

3.8 Authentic learning context

Authentic learning contexts provide learners with immersive, real-world learning environments that enhance their learning experiences. The reviewed articles explored the effectiveness of using VR technology to create such contexts, demonstrating positive effects on language learning, including improved language skills, increased engagement, and better retention of learning outcomes. They highlighted the importance of authentic learning contexts in language acquisition and underscored the value of providing learners with opportunities to apply their knowledge in real-world settings to deepen their understanding of course material. These learning contexts aimed to provide learners with an environment in which they could fully engage with the Chinese language and culture. Chen and Yuan (2023) found that VR provided an authentic and repetition-enabled learning context. In an immersive environment, a higher rate of engagement in interactions and multimodal, immediate, and learner-friendly scaffolding benefited students’ VR-based vocabulary learning. Lan and Tam (2022) developed an immersive Chinese language course involving the use of authentic materials and real-life scenarios to create a more authentic learning experience.

The participants in Legault et al. (2019) learnt 30 words in immersive VR and 30 words via word-paired association. The study found that the learning context had a differential effect on the learners, with less successful learners showing a significant improvement in immersive VR instruction compared to those in the word-paired group, while the successful learners demonstrated no significant benefit from either learning condition. DeWitt et al. (2022) sought to enhance learners’ understanding of cultural differences and similarities and develop their communication skills in multicultural contexts. They highlighted the importance of intercultural competence in a globalised world and the potential of VR to provide immersive intercultural experiences. Xie et al. (2021) found that VR tools can improve oral presentations by enabling contextualised authentic learning. Additionally, Wang et al. (2021) found that online resources such as Chinese Island can provide an authentic context for learning, promote high-quality language learning experiences, and reflect “real language” and “real life” in the target language environment. Finally, Legault et al. (2019) and Ming et al. (2013) found that immersive VR instruction and authentic learning experiences had a positive impact on learning outcomes and enhanced students’ motivation to learn.

The reviewed articles highlight how technology can facilitate authentic and interactive learning contexts that improve language proficiency, cultural awareness, and communication skills. An important aspect of this review project was the exploration of the social context for students’ learning activities in VR-supported learning environments. Students interacted with others: By sharing the responsibility for learning activities with others, they were able to construct their knowledge and make meaning of their learning. Such authentic learning environments allowed students to immerse themselves in the target language and culture as well as develop their ability to express themselves and accomplish tasks in real-life situations. The benefits of authentic learning contexts align with the aims of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2020), which emphasises that language learning should prepare learners to act in real-life situations. By leveraging technology to create immersive and interactive learning environments, language learners can develop the skills they need for effective communication in a range of contexts.

4.1 Implications

The reviewed studies demonstrate the transformative potential of technology in language learning, especially in the field of Chinese education. By providing an immersive and engaging learning environment, VR technology can help learners interact with Chinese language and culture, leading to improved language learning outcomes, attitudes, confidence, motivation, and communication skills. Furthermore, VR technology enables learners to engage in authentic learning contexts. Integrating VR technology into language learning has significant implications for both Chinese language education and foreign language acquisition.

1. First, VR technology has the potential to enhance language learning outcomes and can be effective in improving various aspects of language learning, such as vocabulary acquisition, intercultural communication competence, oral proficiency, and writing skills. Proper design and evaluation are essential to ensuring the effectiveness and appropriateness of technology-enhanced language learning programmes. Educators must carefully plan and assess these programmes to meet learners’ needs and achieve desired outcomes.

2. Second, VR technology can offer immersive and engaging learning experiences. The immersive and interactive nature of VR technology provides a more engaging and personalised learning experience and helps learners to stay motivated and interested in learning the language. Educators need to design technology-based language learning activities that are interactive and engaging and that follow cognitive science principles to enhance student learning outcomes. It is crucial to consider learners’ perceptions and experiences to increase their acceptance of and engagement with the technology when designing technology-based language learning tools.

3. Third, VR-enhanced language learning can help overcome geographical and linguistic barriers. Consequently, VR-enhanced language learning can be particularly beneficial for learners facing geographical and linguistic barriers to language learning.

4. Furthermore, VR-enhanced language learning can benefit from interdisciplinary collaboration. Several studies involved collaboration among language educators, technology developers, and researchers from other fields, highlighting the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in developing effective technology-enhanced language learning programmes.

Despite the potential benefits, there are challenges in the implementation of VR-enhanced language learning. These challenges can be classified into logistical and learner-related issues. Logistical issues encompass technical difficulties such as Internet connectivity and sound quality, which can impact the quality of the learning experience. Learner-related issues include engagement and technology literacy. The learning environment plays a critical role in achieving favourable learning outcomes; therefore, it is critical to ensure that students have access to such an environment to maximise their potential. In some instances, learners may not be acquainted with VR technology or may not feel comfortable using it, which may hinder their learning experiences. It is important to address these issues to fully realise the benefits of technology-enhanced language learning. According to Barrett et al. (2020, p. 3), “one of the challenges of exploring the affordances of a particular VR learning environment, or any new technology for that matter, is that many potential users may not be digitally literate”. This argument also applies to teachers, who may face challenges in facilitating student learning through this technology.

4.2 Areas for future research

While the reviewed articles provide valuable insights into the potential of emerging technologies for language learning, it is crucial to comprehensively address their limitations and investigate their impact on language learning outcomes. To overcome these limitations, future studies should employ larger and more diverse samples, examine multiple language skills, and explore different educational contexts. Moreover, future research could investigate the potential of emerging technologies in supporting language learning for various age groups and language proficiency levels. There are several areas of consideration for future research:

1. Using larger and more diverse samples: Some studies had small sample sizes, which limited the generalisability of their findings. To increase the generalisability of future research, larger and more diverse samples of language learners should be involved.

2. Considering a broader population of learners: Many of the reviewed articles focused on international students or overseas Chinese learners. Future research should consider a wider population of language learners to determine whether the benefits of VR are generalisable across different learner populations.

3. Comprehensive understanding of VR: Some studies only focused on specific aspects of language learning, such as vocabulary or writing, which may not reflect the full potential of VR for language learning. Future research should investigate the full range of potential applications of VR in language learning.

4. The use of control groups: Some studies lacked control groups, which made it difficult to determine whether the observed language learning improvements were due to the use of VR or other factors. Future research should aim to include control groups to better understand the effectiveness of VR interventions.

5. An examination of long-term impacts: Many studies undertook short-term interventions that did not provide data on the long-term impact of VR on language learning. Future research should investigate the long-term impact of VR on language learning outcomes.