The Heaven-Earth Cosmic Faith and the Universality of Confucian Ethics

1 Sacrifice to Heaven and Earth

The Book of Songs (《诗经》), the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry (ca. 1100 B.C.E.–ca. 600 B.C.E.), referred to the notion of “Heaven” in one of its “Minor Odes of the Kingdom”:

O vast and mighty Heaven,

Who art called our parent,

That without foul or offence,

I should suffer from disorders thus great!^[1]

“The vast and mighty Heaven” (昊天), Supreme Ruler or Ruler/Emperor of Heaven (上帝) in classical texts from the Western Zhou. Correct Meaning of Mao’s Annotations on The Book of Songs (《毛诗正义》), a classic of the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.E.–220 C.E.), interpreted those four lines from The Book of Songs as a critique of King You of Zhou (周幽王 reigning 781 B.C.E.–771 B.C.E.), believing “Odes of the Kingdom” purported to offer the king advice. However, the renowned Confucian scholar Zhu Xi (朱熹 1130–1200) in his Annotations on The Book of Songs (《诗经集传》), simply read these lines as “why should vast and mighty Heaven, being the parent of humanity, allow people on Earth who are free of sins, suffer such tremendous chaos?” Of the two interpretations, that of Zhu has more merit. The “vast and mighty Heaven,” even when implying premonition to King You, as in Mao’s annotation, nonetheless implies a cosmic “parent.”

How did “vast and mighty Heaven” come to mean both “father and mother”? If seen in the context of Jiao and She rituals (郊社之礼) in the Western Zhou, “the vast Heaven” likely omitted the meaning of “Empress of Earth.” The Western Zhou Jiao and She rituals, as documented in The Book of History (《尚书》), covered the following:

Between nine and eleven on the third day thereafter, he offered two bulls as sacrifices at Jiao (outside the city); between eleven and thirteen on the morrow, at the She (altar to the spirit of the Earth) in the new city, he sacrificed a bull, a ram, and a boar. (“Announcement of the Duke of Shao” in The Book of History, 《尚书·召诰》, J. Legge, Trans.)

The reference to Jiao (郊) meant a ritual offering to the “Emperor of Heaven,” and She (社), that to the “Empress of Earth.” A similar reference is found in the chapter “The Building of Luo” of The Recollected Book of Zhou (《逸周书·作雒》): “A temple was thus built in the suburbs in the south for rituals offered to the Emperor of Heaven,” while she rituals were held for the “Empress of Earth.” (Zhou, 1984, p. 200)

Whether “Jiao and She rituals” had existed in the earlier Shang Dynasty (ca. 1600 B.C.E.–1064 B.C.E.) may still be a matter of debate, although in “The Great Declaration II” of The Book of History (《尚书· 泰誓下》) there was a denunciation made of King Zhou of Shang (商纣王 reigning 1075 B.C.E.–1046 B.C.E.), for neglecting such rites and discontinuing “the offerings in the ancestral temple” (郊社不修，宗庙不享). It is beyond any doubt however, that such rituals had been practiced by the Western Zhou and continued in succeeding dynasties. The Temple of Heaven (天坛) and the Temple of Earth (地坛) in Beijing, served as imperial sites for ritual offerings to Heaven and Earth respectively, throughout the Ming and Qing dynasties. The Temple of Imperial Ancestors (太庙) was located to the east of the Imperial Palace (故宫), known as the Forbidden City (紫禁城). Heaven and Earth featured prominently among the five objects of worship inscribed on traditional ceremonial tablets, with the rest being “sovereign, ancestors and teachers.” This popular tradition in emulation of the courtly rites became universally practiced after the Qin Dynasty (221 B.C.E.–206 B.C.E.). As Xunzi (荀子 ca. 340 B.C.E.–ca. 245 B.C.E.) confirmed, “There are three foundations of cosmic law: Heaven and Earth as the source of life; ancestors, as the source of kinship; sovereign and teacher, as the source of order” (“Discourse on Natural Law” in Xunzi, 《荀子 · 礼论》). By denoting Heaven and Earth as the “source of life”, this means that they are the creators of humanity, all creatures and things. The reference to the “vast and mighty Heaven” in The Book of Songs, intended to mean both “father and mother” without mentioning “Empress of Earth,” is in my view very likely a textual truncation. A precedent for such an omission can be found in the Confucian text: “by Jiao and She rituals they served the Emperor/Ruler of Heaven” (The Doctrine of the Mean, 《中庸》). As Zheng Xuan (郑玄 127–200) noted in his Annotations on the Book of Rites (《礼记正义》), “Without naming the Empress of Earth, She, is a ritual offering to the Empress of Earth.” Zhu Xi in his Annotations on The Doctrine of the Mean (《中庸章句集注》) suggested that “Jiao means a ritual offering to Heaven, and She, an offering to Earth. Not mentioning the ‘Empress of Earth’ is an omission.” In other words, the full version of the Confucian text could have been: “By performing Jiao and She rituals they served both the Emperor of Heaven and the Empress of the Earth.”

“Heaven” or the “Emperor of Heaven” was venerated as the ultimate deity in Chinese faith. During the Spring and Autumn Period (771 B.C.E.–476 B.C.E.), Confucius was quoted as saying “Heaven alone is great, and King Yao alone emulated it” (“Tai Bo” in The Analects, 《论语 · 泰伯》). “Heaven” in such a faith system is opposite to “Earth,” both being father and mother of humanity and all things. This supports the notion that the highest Emperor/Ruler dwells in “this world,” which is human centred, rather than a metaphysical “other world,” found in Chinese culture and cosmic faith. In other words, it shares “continuity of being” with the world in which humans inhabit (Du, 2002, p. 222).

The Heaven-Earth polarity marks an important difference between Chinese culture and that of the Christian West. When Christian missionaries first arrived in China, they were critical of the Chinese “Heaven-Earth” faith. Matteo Ricci, for example, not only stressed in his True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (《天主实义》) that there is only one Lord in Heaven, but suggested “our Lord of Heaven is tantamount to the Emperor of Heaven described in ancient (Chinese) scriptures.” He challenged Zhu Xi’s point about the linguistic omission of “Empress of Earth” in the latter’s commentary on the Confucian text: “by Jiao and She rituals they served the Emperor of Heaven.” (The Doctrine of the Mean) He asked, “What omission is there, but a clear statement by Confucius of a single, unique God?” The belief in one God no doubt conforms to the fundamental doctrine of Catholicism. However, Ricci’s criticism of Zhu Xi does not hold, given the duality of ritual offerings to Heaven (Jiao) and Earth (She) in the Chinese cultural context. Furthermore, the meaning of “Heaven” had been well articulated in classical literature in China, as the Confucian scholar Cheng Yi (程颐 1033–1107) commented, “In terms of its physical form, it is called Heaven; in terms of its omnipotent power, it is called Emperor.” (The Extant Works of the Cheng Brothers, 《程氏遗书》, Part I, Vol. 22). Ricci would have none of this, and wrote, “Emperor is no name for Heaven,” “How can the Lord of Heaven, being a formless spirit, be attributed a physical form?” Ricci could not accept that both Heaven and Earth were objects of sacrificial rituals in the Chinese tradition and argued that “if Heaven above is not venerated as omnipotent, what dignity can there be for Earth below, for it is trodden by all where filths befall?” (Zhu, 2001, pp. 21–22) Ricci’s negation of Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi underscored the key incongruity between the cultures of China and the Western Christian tradition.

2 Heaven and Earth: As the Parent of All Things

“Heaven” had been the supreme deity in Chinese faith well before the era of the philosopher Laozi (老子 ca. 600 B.C.E.–ca.500 B.C.E.). “Heaven” represented the ultimate realm (cf. the Confucian notion that “Heaven alone is great, and King Yao alone emulated it”); “Heaven and Earth” were thought to be primordial. The notion of “Pangu creating the world by separating Heaven and Earth” was a legend that only came about in the Eastern Han era (25–220) following the introduction of Buddhism (Li, 2013). Laozi first proposed that “there was something undefined and absolute, coming into existence before Heaven and Earth” (Laozi, Chapter 25), suggesting the existence of Dao (道) or Qi (气). The Qi of Yin (阴) and Yang (阳) was the source of Heaven and Earth and hence the fountain of all cosmic beings (cf. “Nameless, it is the Originator of Heaven and Earth; having a name, it is the Mother of all things” Laozi, Chapter 1). Still, in the evolution of Laozi’s philosophy and the history of Chinese thinking, the notion of humanity and all things being produced by Heaven and Earth prevailed.

According to the philosophy of Laozi, Heaven and Earth, with Dao being their source, give birth to all humanity, creatures, and things. As Laozi says, “May not the space between Heaven and Earth be compared to a pair of bellows? When emptied, it loses not its power; when pressed again, it yields greater force” (Laozi, Chapter 5). “A violent wind lasts not a whole morning, a sudden rain not the whole day. Who determines this? Heaven and Earth” (Laozi, Chapter 23). “Heaven and Earth unite and send down the sweet dew which, of its own accord, falls upon all, without the command of men” (Laozi, Chapter 32). All these musings point to the notion of Heaven and Earth working in unison, giving rise to all cosmic beings. His proposition that “The Dao produced one; one generates two; two generates three; three produced all things” (Laozi, Chapter 42) can be interpreted as the force splitting into Yin and Yang to form Heaven and Earth (one generates two), and the clash of Heaven and Earth to give birth to humanity and all creatures and things (two generates three—loss of equilibrium, hence conflict and multiplicity).

This notion of Heaven and Earth being the father and mother of humanity and all cosmic beings, had been clearly articulated by the Warring States Period (475 B.C.E.–221 B.C.E.), and widely accepted by various schools of thought including Confucian and Taoist among others. Zhuangzi (《庄子》), for example, referred to “Yin and Yang being akin to Man’s parents … Once we understand that Heaven and Earth are great furnaces, and their function is that of the Creator, where can we go that is not right for us” (“the Most Honoured Master” in Zhuangzi, 《庄子 · 大宗师》)? He further stated, “Heaven and Earth are father and mother of all creatures and things” (“the Full Understanding of Life” in Zhuangzi,《庄子 · 达生》). A similar reference was found among the silk texts in one of The Four Classics of the Yellow Emperor (《黄帝四经》), unearthed at the Mawangdui archaeological excavation (马王堆汉墓) which is dated to the second century B.C.E. It reads, “The Yellow Emperor says, ‘The Heaven being father, and Earth, mother of all people; the former is the source of life and the latter sustenance’” (“Guo Tong” in The Ten Great Classics,《十大经 · 果童》). And, “The noble virtue of father and mother is that of Heaven and Earth” (“On Correct Rulership” in The Constancy of Laws,《经法 · 君正》).

The notion of Heaven and Earth being “father and mother” of humanity and all living things, is held highly by the School of Confucianism, perhaps more highly than in any other Chinese schools of thought. As stated in Commentary on The Book of Changes (《易传》), “Qian (乾) represents Heaven, hence its appellation of father; Kun (坤) represents Earth, hence that of mother” (“The Explanation of the Trigrams” in Commentary on The Book of Changes,《易传 · 说卦》). “Heaven and Earth exert their influences, and thereby ensue the transformation and production of all things” (“The Xian Trigram: Commentary on the Judgment” in Commentary on The Book of Changes, 《易传 · 咸卦 · 彖传》). “In the intermingling of Heaven and Earth, transformation in all forms rises. In the interaction of male and female, all types of growth germinate” (“The Commentary on the Appended Phrases II” in Commentary on The Book of Changes,《易传 · 系辞下》). “After Heaven and Earth, all things came into being, after which came male and female, husband and wife, father and son, sovereign and his ministers, then hierarchy and the order of propriety and rectitude” (“The Sequence of the Hexagrams” in Commentary on The Book of Changes,《易传 · 序卦》). Thus, a synthesis of the natural way of Heaven and the ethical way of humanity was offered by Commentary on The Book of Changes, creating a unified cosmos—a virtuous oneness of Heaven and Man; the natural world and human society.

Commentary on The Book of Changes has many comments on the giving of life and sustenance to humanity, for example:

The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is the giving and maintaining life. (“The Commentary on the Appended Phrases II,” Commentary on The Book of Changes)

Vast is the great and originating power of Qian (Heaven)! All things owe to it their beginning: It contains all the meaning of Heaven. Complete is the great and originating power of Kun (Earth)! All things owe to it their birth; it receives obediently the influences of Heaven. Kun, in its vastness, supports and accommodates all things. The unifying force of its virtue is boundless. (“Commentary on the Judgement,” Commentary on The Book of Changes)

Heaven and Earth are marked by changes and transformations; and the sages emulate them. (“The Commentary on the Appended Phrases I,” Commentary on The Book of Changes, 《易传 · 系辞上》)

The great man is he whose virtuous attributes are in harmony with Heaven and Earth; whose brightness, is in harmony with the sun and moon; his orderly conduct, with the four seasons; and his relation to what is fortunate and what is calamitous, is in harmony with ghosts and spirits. He may precede Heaven, and Heaven will not act against him; he may follow Heaven, but act only as Heaven at the time would do. (“Commentary on the Words,” Commentary on The Book of Changes, 《易传 · 文言传》)

Heaven is potent in its motion and the virtuous man, in accordance with this, nerves himself to ceaseless self-improvement. The force of Earth is all-sustaining; the virtuous man is magnanimous and supports it with his boundless virtue. (“Overall Image,” Commentary on The Book of Changes, 《易传 · 象传》)

As Zhang Dainian (张岱年 1909–2004), the noted philosopher and historian of philosophy, pointed out, “the quintessential Chinese spirit” is reflected in those two lines (Zhang, 1996, p. 168, 223), as quotes above. “Ceaseless self-improvement” and the act of “being magnanimous” and supporting it with “his boundless virtue” are indeed emblematic of the Chinese spirit, reflecting a conviction in the “great virtue” of Heaven and Earth and an affirmation of their transformative force; all in faithful emulation of the “force of Heaven in motion” and “the sustaining power of Earth.”

Thus, the Chinese spirit is rooted in the “Heaven-humanity oneness of virtue,” which affirms the transformative force of Heaven and Earth and the authenticity of human life on Earth. This also explains why the notions of “Dao being not far from Man” and “pursuing the course of the Mean as the highest state of being” are central to Chinese philosophical thinking and culture. As Zhu Xi noted regarding the comment that “sincerity is the Dao of Heaven and the attainment of sincerity the Dao of Mankind” (The Doctrine of the Mean), “sincerity means truthfulness and being free from falsity” (Annotations on The Doctrine of the Mean). To the Chinese mind, the world that mankind inhabits is never hollow and unreal, the temporary habitat for a transient existence.^[2] Optimistically, we keep persevering resolutely for self-improvement, and strive for great virtue, in pursuit of social ideals and a fulfilled life on Earth. This has been the Chinese nation’s boundless force for rejuvenation, solidarity, and struggle.

3 Human Being: As the Intelligent Part of the Universe

The dualism of Heaven and Earth as the source of all cosmic beings was articulated in The Book of History: “Heaven and Earth are parents of all creatures, and of those, Man is the most highly accomplished” (“Great Declaration I” in The Book of History, 《尚书 · 泰誓上》). It no doubt reflects the classical pre-Qin way of thinking, even though the “ancient text” itself was probably produced in later times. The notion forms the foundation of the universality of Confucian ethics. The declaration that “Of all creatures, man is the most highly accomplished” is akin to saying, “of all beings created by Heaven and Earth, Man is the noblest” (The Classic of Filial Piety, 《孝经》). It is so because Man alone, of all creatures, has self-consciousness (heart), moral awareness, and the capacity for self-cultivation and ethical conduct. Thus, “Man is the heart of Heaven and Earth” (“Ceremonial Usages; Their Origins, Development, and Intention” in The Book of Rites, 《礼记 · 礼运》).

Why is it that humans are placed in such a supreme, crowning position in the universe, or are endowed with “heart”-spiritual capacity? This has inspired propositions from religious, philosophical and scientific perspectives, and remained a subject of inquiry. In Chinese philosophical thinking, this is because Man is in unity with the “converging forces of Heaven and Earth” or “the finest of the five primary elements.” As Duke Kang of Liu (刘康公 ?–544 B.C.E.) was recorded saying in the 13th year of the Duke of Cheng (578 B.C.E.), “I have heard that people are endowed with life by the central harmony between Heaven and Earth and that is their destiny. Thence arise rules for conduct, ritual, duty, authority and discipline for the fulfilment of such destiny” (Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, 《春秋左传》). Thus the first inkling of this notion pertaining to the inherent goodness of human nature should have occurred in the Spring and Autumn Period. It was subsequently affirmed in the Warring States Period, as seen in various texts of the Confucian canon:

What Heaven has conferred is called nature; accordance with this nature is called the path of duty; the regulation of this path is called instruction. … While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the state of equilibrium. When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of harmony. (The Doctrine of the Mean, J. Legge, Tran.)

He who has exhausted his meditative capacity knows his nature. Knowing his nature, he understands Heaven. (“Jin Xin I” in Mencius, 《孟子 · 尽心上》)

It was further stated in The Book of Rites that “Man is born of the virtue of Heaven and Earth, the interaction of Yin and Yang, the union of the ghosts and spirits, and the finest of the five elements” (“Ceremonial Usages; Their Origins, Development, and Intention” in The Book of Rites). Being the product of the converging forces of Heaven and Earth—the finest of the five elements, Man stands out from all creatures, and is the noblest, imbued with “heart”—spiritual capacity.

The notion proposed in The Book of Rites was adopted by philosophical thinkers of later eras. The Song Dynasty philosopher and cosmologist Zhou Dunyi (周敦颐 1017–1073) wrote in his The Taiji Diagram Explained (《太极图说》), “The Dao of Qian becomes the male; the Dao of Kun becomes the female; the forces of both interact, transforming and generating all things in the cosmos to infinity.” He further stated, “Only humans receive the finest (of the forces) and are thus the most numinous. As they are born and evolve in form, spirit is manifested, and awareness rises. As the five virtues are stimulated into action, good and evil are distinguished, and myriad affairs of Man arise.” “Receiving the finest (of the forces)” meant that humans are imbued with the finest energy of the “five primary elements.” Humans are the most sentient of all cosmic beings, for “as they are born and evolve in form, spirit is manifested, and awareness rises.” This can be compared to Xunzi’s notion that “when the work of Heaven is done, the body takes form, and the spirit arises” (“Discourse on Heaven” in Xunzi, 《 荀子 · 天论》). The five constant virtues, as manifestations of conscience and spirit, through human perception of, and interaction with, external matters, separate good from evil and give rise to human affairs of all descriptions.

The Book of Rites further suggests that “As the sage can look upon all under Heaven as one family, and upon all in the Middle Kingdom as one man, he does this not by willing it” (“Ceremonial Usages; Their Origins, Development, and Intention” in The Book of Rites). This means that such a moral and virtuous state of being cannot be achieved by wishful thinking. It takes grounding in ethical principles and self-cultivation. The ethical principles are anchored in Heaven and Earth, as originator of humanity and all cosmic beings. Humans can achieve this moral state of being—“all under Heaven as family, and all in the Middle Kingdom as one,” for they are the most sentient of all and the “heart of Heaven and Earth.”

4 All Things are Integrated

The Chinese Heaven-Earth cosmic view is essentially an extrapolation of the paramount emphasis placed on family in Chinese culture. Given this traditional emphasis, Ren (仁, virtue/humanity) begins with filial piety, or respect and responsibility for the family. The philosopher You Ruo (有若 ca. 508 B.C.E.–?), one of Confucius’ disciples, was quoted in The Analects as saying, “The man of virtue bends his attention to what is the essence of being. That being established, the Dao arises. Filial piety and fraternal submission—are they not the very essence of benevolence” (“Xue Er” in The Analects, 《论语 · 学而》)? The “essence of being” here should not be confused with the notion of “being” in Western ontology, lest the virtue of filial piety should be narrowly confined to “what it is to be a thing,” with benevolence being divided for the “thing” and directed only toward the next of kin. The “essence of being” implies absolute, Heavenly-ordained connectedness and oneness. Given this foundation, filial piety expands into benevolence, or the way of Ren, as a universal virtue.

In Confucian thinking, love is a virtue of compassion for humanity, as documented in The Analects:

The Master said, “A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should love all and be close with the virtuous.”

This tenet of universal love is central to Confucianism. The Classic of Filial Piety, e.g., refers to “setting before them an example of the most extended love.” The Han-dynasty Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu (董仲舒 179 B.C.E.–104 B.C.E.) also emphasized that one should “be loyal, honourable, and love extensively” (“Deeply Examine Names and Designations” in Luxuriant Dew of The Spring and Autumn Annals, 《春秋繁露 · 深察名号》). The Discourses on Salt and Iron (《盐铁论》) cites an argument by the “learned” that “A true sovereign expands love and extends benefaction; he achieves harmony with the close and the remote alike.” By the Tang Dynasty, the eminent Confucian scholar Han Yu (韩愈 768–824) simply used compassion to define Ren (humanity), “To love generously is called Ren” (“The Origins of Dao” in The Works of Han Yu, 《韩昌黎集 · 原道》).

One chapter in Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals (《吕氏春秋》) was dedicated to “love for one’s kind,” i.e. for all fellow humans. It cites a passage that reads, “To be Ren (kind) to things, rather than people, is not Ren; to be Ren to people, but not to things, is still Ren. Thus, to be Ren is to be benevolent to one’s kind.” In his commentary on a passage from The Analects [“When Fan Chi asked about benevolence, the Master said, ‘It is to love all men.’”], the modern era political thinker Kang Youwei (康有为 1858–1927) proposed, “The benevolent embrace all, yet first and foremost fellow humans, in their love, … for only universal compassion is called Ren (benevolence). Confucius uses myriad words to imply Ren. Yet here, he uses ‘to love all men,’ which is truly the essence of Ren” (“Yan Yuan” in Annotations on The Analects, 《论语注 · 颜渊》).

The comment of “the benevolent embracing all in their love” further implies inclusion of not only people, but all creatures and living things. This is reflected in the thinking of Mencius: “He is affectionate to his family, and lovingly disposed to people in general. He is lovingly disposed to people in general, and kind to all creatures and living things” (“Jin Xin I” in Mencius). Being affectionate to one’s family is the starting point of benevolence, which is extended to being lovingly disposed to people in general, and kind to all creatures and living things, a universal moral proposition. Mencius further urges:

Treat elders in your own family with reverence, due to their age, so that the elders in the families of others shall be similarly treated; treat the young in your own family with kindness, due to their youth, so that the young in the families of others shall be similarly treated. … Therefore, a prince who acts out of heartfelt kindness will provide sufficient protection of all within the four seas; and if he does not enact it, he will not be able to protect his wife and children. (“King Hui of Liang I” in Mencius, 《孟子 · 梁惠王上》)

Such teachings of benevolence to one’s own family is extended to others. Mencius thus urges the ruler to “carry out his heartfelt kindness to all, for the protection of all within the four seas,” or else “he will not be able to protect his own wife and children.” He emphasizes the importance of “extending kindness” to all, not just one’s own family, for one’s own protection. Thus, the Confucian notion of Ren (benevolence) is not merely kinship-centred but extends from one’s own elders and offspring to those of others, embracing all under Heaven. True benevolence in the Confucian tradition is a universal virtue, “being lovingly disposed to people in general, and kind to all creatures and living things.”

“The Western Inscription” (《西铭》) penned by the Neo-Confucian Zhang Zai (张载 1020–1077) in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) was highly praised by Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao (程颢 1032–1085) and cited by them as a “thorough elaboration of Ren and its manifestations,” “capturing the essence of benevolence and filial piety.” (The Extant Works of the Cheng Brothers, Part I, Vol. II). Its opening sentence reads, “Heaven is my father and Earth my mother.” This apparently is derived from the two lines of Commentary on The Book of Changes: “Qian is Heaven, hence the appellation of father. Kun is Earth, hence the appellation of mother.” On this premise, Zhang Zai stated, “Therefore that which extends throughout the universe I regard as my body, and that which drives the universe I consider as my nature.” He further proposes a heightened ethical realm of “all people being my brothers and sisters, and all creatures and living things my companions.” Zhu Xi, in his “Explanation of the Western Inscription” (《西铭解》), noted that the notion of “all people being my brothers and sisters” is akin to regarding “all humanity under Heaven as one’s kin,” and “all creatures and living things being one’s companions” is akin to treating them “all as one’s equals.” Zhu Xi further commented that “only when all men are brothers, the world is one family and the nation is one person.” “All elders deserve the same respect. I respect elders everywhere, as I respect the elders of my own. All youth deserve the same kindness. I am as kind to the lonely and feeble, as I am to the young in my own family.”

Zhu Xi’s comment of “the world being one family and the nation one person” draws upon The Book of Rites. His comment of “respecting elders of one’s own and being kind to the young” is identical with the phrase used by Mencius “Treat the elders in your own family with reverence due to their age,” and “treat the young in your own family with kindness, due to their youth.” Again, the proposition of “respecting elders everywhere” and “being kind to the lonely and feeble” parallels Mencius’ notion: “… and the young in the families of others shall be similarly treated.” As Heaven being father, and Earth mother, thus “all men are brothers.” Likewise, “respecting elders everywhere” and “being kind to the lonely and feeble” are respectively, tantamount to “treating the elders with reverence, due to their age, and the young in your own family with kindness, due to their youth” (“Postscript” to Commentaries on The Taiji Diagram Explained, 《太极图说解 》“注后记”). Within the Confucian construct of oneness of Heaven and Man, “Serving one’s parents as one serves Heaven, essentially means filial piety. It follows that benevolence lies in serving Heaven, just as one would serve one’s parents.” (Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi, Vol. 98, 《朱子语类》第九十八卷). While filial piety is in essence, a virtue of the individual, benevolence becomes a universal virtue. However, while the notion of being dutiful to one’s parents was equated to that of Heaven, filial piety took on a sacrosanctity and benevolence; an emotional affinity.

The universality of Confucian ethics manifests itself not only in the all-encompassing “love of humanity” but also in that of “myriad things.” In the Song Dynasty, Neo-Confucian thinkers proposed notions of this “universal benevolence,” such as “all things without exception possess a life force (性)” (Supplementary Volume II of Records of Zhang Zai, 《张子语录 · 后录下》), and “life force, being the source of all things, is not unique or particular to oneself only” (Li, 2008). Similarly, when commenting on universal brotherhood and equality, Zhu Xi used the correlation of “humanity and the natural world, both sharing life force, but of varying energy (气).” He proposed:

Humans and other creatures and things are born between Heaven and Earth. Their nature (性) comes from and is decided by Heaven and Earth. They differ in life force (气) by degree and so their endowment of nature also differs by degree.

Humans have the most enlightened heart, because they are endowed with sound and complete nature (性) by Heaven and Earth. Fellow humans, being the noblest of all creatures and things, treat each other as kin and brothers. Other creatures and things, being endowed with a less sound and incomplete nature (性), are not of our kind. Though less noble than humans, their body and nature are born from Heaven and Earth. On this they are no different from us and should be treated as our equals. (“Explanation of the Western Inscription”)

One’s “equals” are akin to one’s friends or neighbours. In traditional Confucian thinking, there is variation in degrees of love, from that for “brothers” to “equals.” As “the benevolent embrace all with their love,” this love extends to humanity and all creatures and living things; but first and foremost, to fellow humans.

Zhu Xi went on to say:

As all men are brothers, so all under Heaven is one family, and the Middle Kingdom as one person … Thus all things that exist between Heaven and Earth—be they mobile or vegetarian, sentient or otherwise—should be allowed to grow as their nature dictates, and according to their own way. (“Explanation of the Western Inscription”)

Confucian Thought thus encompasses not only the benevolent notion of “all under Heaven as a family and the Middle Kingdom (nation) as one person,” but also, that which embraces all creatures and living things. The notion of benevolence manifests itself not only in such universal virtues as loving one’s country and internationalism, but significantly, in ecological ethics that inspire environmental protection.

There was a noted debate between Cheng Yi and Yang Shi (杨时 1053–1135) over interpretations of “the Western Inscription.” Yang, a Song-dynasty scholar and student of the Cheng brothers, commented on its elaboration of ontological existence (体), and yet its disregard for its application (用), which could lead to misconceptions and the misleading notion of Mozi’s (墨子 ca.476 B.C.E.–ca.390 B.C.E.) idea of “loving all equally.” Regarding Yang’s view as misconstrued, in his reply, Cheng Yi questioned:

“The Western Inscription” proposes oneness while allowing differentiation, whereas Mozi emphasizes all individuals without differentiation (Note: Loving others as one’s own elders or young, implies oneness, whereas loving all equally, without differentiation, in essence leans toward individuality). While differentiation may lead to selfishness overshadowing benevolence, loving all equally may lead to generality, without righteousness. Uphold oneness while allowing differentiation to prevent selfishness, which is the core of benevolence. Being obsessed with loving all equally without differentiation, may fail to recognize (the sacredness of) the father, and the loss of righteousness. (“Reply to Yang Shi’s Letter on the Western Inscription” in Vol. 9 of Writings of the Cheng Brothers, 《二程文集》)

With this comment on the problems of differentiation and selfishness undermining benevolence, it was made clear that if benevolence is confined to circles of family and kinship, it will be the triumph of selfishness, not benevolence. The Confucian tenet of benevolence and filial piety suggests “upholding oneness while allowing differentiation, so as to prevent selfishness; that is the core of benevolence.” In other words, the Confucian Way is to elevate the love of one’s parents and family to “oneness” of benevolence, so as to restrain and rise above “egoistic inclination,” a proposition of universal virtues.

Zhu Xi largely concurred with Cheng Yi’s critique and commented:

There is but Li (理) between Heaven and Earth. However, as “the Dao of Qian (Heaven) becomes the male; the Dao of Kun (Earth) becomes the female; the forces of the two interact, transforming and generating all things in the cosmos.” Their differences in size, importance and closeness in relevance exceed tens, hundreds, thousands, even tens of thousands, regenerating and evolving to infinity.” Only the noble sage can bring together the particular and elicit oneness in all! That’s what “the Western Inscription” is all about. Cheng Yi’s argument sums it up clearly, “the universality of Li allows particularity at the same time”. (“Explanation of the Western Inscription”)

The comment on the Dao of Qian and the Dao of Kun comes from Commentary on The Book of Changes and was quoted by Zhou Dunyi in his The Taiji Diagram Explained. It implies the same idea as “Heaven being father, and Earth mother.” All humanity, creatures and things born of Heaven and Earth differ in size, measure, and closeness or otherwise in relevance (cf. “It is the nature of things to be of unequal quality” “Duke Wen of Teng I” in Mencius, 《孟子 · 滕文公上》). Confucian ethics thus allows particularity within the oneness construct and the ideal state is “bringing together the unique and particular, eliciting their oneness,” so that “ethical values attain universality,” as achieved by the sages. Such “oneness and particularity” theme is central to Zhu Xi’s explanation of “the Western Inscription” and became a general principle in his philosophical thinking.

Zhu Xi also drew criticism for his “Explanation of the Western Inscription” from the Lu brothers. An example from Lu Jiushao (陆九韶 1128–1205) argued that “All humans and creatures are born of their own fathers and mothers, which has nothing to do with Heaven and Earth.” In response, Zhu Xi wrote:

Man is indeed born of his father and mother. However, the essence of being father and mother is that of being Qian (Male/Heaven) and Kun (female/Earth). Everyone is born of their own father and mother, yet with Qian and Kun, all are born the same. … The virtuous of yore recognized this truth and was therefore affectionate to his parents, and lovingly disposed to people in general, as well as being kind to all creatures and things. This being emulated, all under Heaven can be one family and the nation, one person. This is so, not by dint of wishful thinking. (“In Response to Lu Zimei” 《答陆子美》)

In Confucianism, given every human is born of their own father and mother, filial piety is therefore the origin and starting point of benevolence. One must first and foremost love and respect one’s own parents (cf. Zhu Xi’s “Loving others without loving one’s parents contradicts virtue.” In “Explanation of the Western Inscription”). Further, as “with Qian and Kun, all are born the same,” one should thus be “lovingly disposed to people in general, and kind to all creatures and things,” and treat “all people as one’s brothers and sisters, and all creatures and things as one’s companions,” rather than confine love to one’s parents and family only. This is a manifestation of moral cultivation and virtue. Zhu Xi’s incisive comment points to the important link between the Heaven-Earth cosmic order and the universality of Confucian ethics. The Heaven-Earth order, derived from pre-historic Chinese myth/faith, was “deemed true” in Confucian thinking. Therefore, all of the proposed notions such as “all people being one’s brothers and sisters, all creatures and things one’s equals”; “all under Heaven being one family and the nation one person” are firmly rooted in Confucian rationality and philosophical construct; anything but a mere leap of faith.

The Confucian principle of filial piety as the source and starting point of benevolence is of great relevance to family ethics in contemporary society. The Confucian tenets of “being lovingly disposed to people in general, and kind to all creatures and things,” and treating “all people as one’s brothers and sisters, and all creatures and things one’s companions” are moral imperatives of true universal virtues. They are also highly relevant to the building of a community with a shared future for mankind, ecological and environmental protection. Likewise, the classical Heaven-Earth cosmic faith, or the notion of Heaven and Earth being father and mother of humanity and all things, should continue to be valued in today’s society. Religion, philosophy and science in Western cultures have become mutually complementary in the modern era. Whether or not the cosmic belief in the classical Heaven-Earth relationship can complement, as well as bolster philosophy and science in modern-day Chinese culture, is a question worthy of consideration.