The future of space colonisation: Architectural considerations

4.1 Environmental challenges and their impact on architecture

The phenomenon of space colonisation presents numerous environmental challenges that importantly impacted the planning and development of habitats. To ensure the safety and operational effectiveness of space habitats, it is crucial to thoroughly evaluate the unique challenges presented by severe temperatures, radiation exposure, vacuum conditions, and other relevant elements [16].

One of the primary challenges encountered in the field of space exploration relates to the extreme temperature variations observed within the space environment. The moon’s possession of physical atmosphere results in an unconcealed absence of temperature fluctuations. This is evidenced by the occurrence of exceedingly low temperatures during the lunar night and exceptionally high temperatures when the moon is exposed to direct sunlight. To maintain habitable conditions within space habitats, it is necessary to incorporate robust insulating systems and efficient thermal management mechanisms due to the occurrence of temperature fluctuations.

The matter of radiation exposure holds considerable importance as an environmental problem in the realm of space travel. In conjunction with the protective shield offered by Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field, astronauts are exposed to several forms of radiation, including solar particle events and galactic cosmic rays [17]. The existence of these particles characterised by elevated energy levels poses significant risks to human health and has the capacity to inflict damage upon electronic systems and materials. Therefore, it is crucial for space architecture to incorporate shielding materials and radiation mitigation strategies to protect astronauts and sensitive equipment from harmful radiation [18].

The unique challenges encountered in space architecture are a direct result of the vacuum conditions prevailing in outer space. To maintain the stability of the internal environment and withstand pressure differentials, it is imperative for habitats to exhibit structural resilience when devoid of atmospheric pressure [16]. Furthermore, the lack of atmospheric pressure has a notable influence on the behaviour of fluids, necessitating the utilisation of customised systems to manage the distribution of water, disposal of waste, and circulation of air within the habitats.

Through a comprehensive comprehension and effective resolution of the environmental obstacles encountered inside the realm of space and professionals in the fields of architecture and engineering possess the capacity to conceive and implement inventive measures that guarantee the security and functioning and liveability of space habitats. Human endeavours encompass a wide range of activities and pursuits undertaken by individuals or groups. These endeavours can span several domains, including but not limited to scientific research, artistic creations, technological innovations, social initiatives, and economic ventures. The term “human endeavours” encapsulates the collective efforts and aspirations of humanity to explore, understand, and improve the world in which we live.

4.2 Psychological and physiological challenges for human occupants

In junction with environmental challenges, the endeavour of space colonisation also entails physical, mental, and physiologic problems for human beings [19]. Extended durations of isolation, confinement, fluctuating gravity, and sensory deprivation could exert meaningful impacts on the mental and physiologic well-being of astronauts.

One of the foremost psychological obstacles faced by astronauts during space missions is the sense of isolation and protracted confinement. The experience of being separated from one‘s family, friends, and familiar physical surroundings can give rise to emotions of solitude, longing for home and psychological strain [20]. The issues are further intensified by the restricted living quarters found in space habitats, where astronauts have constraints in terms of personal space and privacy [21]. Hence, it is imperative for space design to accord priority to the establishment of psychologically supportive spaces that foster social interaction, privacy, and individual well-being [17].

The fluctuating gravity circumstances experienced in space provide physiological obstacles for astronauts. Exposure to microgravity conditions might result in several detrimental impacts on the human body, including muscular atrophy, bone loss, and cardiovascular maladaptation. To address these consequences, it is imperative for space engineering to incorporate exercise equipment, artificial gravity systems, and ergonomic design concepts to uphold the physical and mental well-being of astronauts over extended space [22].

Sensory deprivation is a significant obstacle in the context of space exploration. The circadian rhythms, mood, and cognitive function of astronauts can be influenced by the absence of natural light cycles, restricted visual stimulation, and a lack of various noises and scents. The objective of space architecture should be to design habitats that replicate natural sensory encounters, encompassing lighting systems that simulate the cycles of daylight, soundscapes that offer aural stimulation, and materials that conjure familiar odours [23].

Architects and designers have the ability to foster mental health, physical well-being, and optimal performance among astronauts by comprehending and tackling the psychological and physiological obstacles encountered in space.

4.3 Technological challenges and advancements

The establishment of sustainable space habitats necessitates the use of cutting-edge technical advancements. An area of significant importance pertains to the advancement of 3D printing technology specifically designed for construction applications. The utilisation of 3D printing technology has the capacity to significantly transform the field of space architecture through its ability to facilitate the construction of structures directly at the site of operation and utilising materials that are readily accessible within the immediate vicinity [24]. The utilisation of this technology has promise in terms of cost reduction and simplification of space missions and while also offering the potential to enhance the sustainability and self-reliance of forthcoming space habitats [25].

One of the prevailing technological obstacles encountered in the field of space architecture is to the advancement of autonomous robotic systems. These technologies are highly significant in the building and maintenance of space habitats since they possess the power to do tasks that are considered dangerous or excessively time consuming for human astronauts. Autonomous robots have the capability to be programmed in a manner that enables them to effectively traverse and perform tasks inside demanding settings, such as the lunar or Martian surface. These robots can provide valuable assistance in activities such as drilling, assembly, and maintenance [26].

Moreover, the utilisation of in situ resources represents a significant advancement. The concept of in situ resource utilisation pertains to the extraction and exploitation of resources that are readily accessible on celestial worlds, such as the Moon or Mars, with the purpose of facilitating human expeditions. This methodology diminishes the necessity for terrestrial provisions and facilitates extended-duration expeditions through the utilisation of space-based resources [27]. Researchers are now working on the development of technologies, such as regolith mining and processing systems, which aim to extract valuable resources, including water and minerals, from the soil found on celestial bodies such as the Moon or Mars [28].

In summary, these advancements possess the capacity to fundamentally transform the methodologies employed in the creation and construction of space habitats, rendering them more environmentally conscious, economically viable, and capable of sustaining themselves autonomously.

4.4 Economic considerations for sustainable space habitats

The construction of sustainable space habitats is undeniably impacted by a range of architectural and technical elements. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that economic considerations also exert a significant influence on the trajectory of interplanetary colonisation [24]. The establishment of self-sustaining space habitats necessitates a thorough comprehension of the continuing economic dynamics, encompassing the substantial investments needed and the anticipated returns linked to these outlays [29].

The endeavour of space colonisation necessitates a substantial financial investment, since it entails significant expenditures in the domains of research, development, and the deployment of cutting-edge space technology [30]. The costs involved with the initiation of payloads into the expanse of outer space, the establishment of habitats, and the maintenance of life support systems are substantial and necessitate the effective use of resources. Space colonisation encompasses a diverse array of stakeholders, comprising governmental space organisations, private space enterprises, and transnational partners [31]. these parties possess discernible economic objectives. Moreover, the economic dimensions associated with space habitats encompass not solely their initial establishment but also the sustained operation of these habitats and the prospective economic activities that could be pursued within them, encompassing, yet not restricted to, mining, manufacturing, and scientific research [32].

Furthermore, the economic viability of space exploration is contingent upon several factors, such as the efficient utilisation of resources, the upkeep of infrastructure, and the establishment of a self-sustaining space ecosystem [33]. The aforementioned criteria play a crucial role in achieving a balance between the initial investment and the long-term advantages associated with space colonisation endeavours. The practicality and efficacy of space habitats as sustainable endeavours depend on the establishment of a comprehensive framework that encompasses cost efficient operations, energy production, and resource use [29].

In conclusion, a comprehensive comprehension of the economic dimensions pertaining to sustainable space habitats is crucial for their advancement and enduring viability. To ensure the long-term feasibility and economic sustainability of space colonisation as a prospective undertaking for future generations, it is imperative to conduct a thorough evaluation of the associated costs, benefits, and potential returns on investment.

In summary, the colonisation of space brings with it many challenges that require architectural and engineering innovative solutions. Space architecture has the ability to shape the future of human settlements outside the Earth through its treatment of environmental, psychological, physical, technical and economic problems. In addition, to successfully colonise the space, requires bringing together experts from different disciplines, making great leaps in technology, and coming up with innovative ways to create sustainable and thriving societies beyond Earth.

5.1 Life support and ECS

The design and application of improved life support and ECS is a big part of the space habitat architectural framework. These systems are the heart of any sustainable space home because they make sure there is air to breathe, water to drink, and a controlled setting that is good for human health and well-being.

Life support systems include a variety of tools that are needed to keep people alive in the harsh environment of space [2]. These processes include making oxygen, getting rid of carbon dioxide, and recycling water and nutrients. All of these are important for keeping the habitat’s environment closed. Waste management and life support systems are intricately interconnected due to the necessity of processing and recycling waste products in a manner that conserves resources and minimises environmental impact [34].

ECS, on the other hand, are in charge of making and keeping space shelters liveable [2]. They control the temperature and humidity and air pressure and quality of the air and they mimic conditions on Earth to make sure pilots are comfortable and healthy. These devices are also necessary to protect people from the hard environment outside, such as radiation and small meteorites [35].

Recent improvements in life support and ECS technologies have made it possible to build systems that are more efficient, smaller, and self-sufficient. Bio-based life support systems, which use biological processes to clean the air and water, could be a good option for long-term space trips. Adding smart devices and automation to ECS makes it possible to watch and control the habitat environment in real time. This makes the system as a whole more reliable and useful [36].

In the end, life support and ECS are the backbone of sustainable space colonies that allow people to live beyond Earth’s borders.

5.2 Structural integrity

The structural integrity of space habitats stands as a paramount consideration in the realm of space architecture and encompassing a multifaceted array of challenges and innovations. It is not an exaggeration to state that the success of space colonisation hinges on the reliability and resilience of these architectural structures. In an environment where there is no atmosphere to provide support and protect against external threats, the structural design becomes the first line of defense against the harsh realities of space [37].

One of the primary concerns is the ability of space habitats to withstand micrometeoroid impacts and the relentless bombardment of space debris [32]. The structural materials need to be carefully selected and engineered to provide adequate shielding against these threats. Additionally, to withstand the significant temperature changes and thermal stresses that are commonly encountered in the space environment and it is imperative for habitats to preserve their structural integrity [38].

Moreover, space habitats need to be designed with the understanding that they will experience mechanical stresses from the life support systems, equipment, and human activities within them [39]. These structural systems must be resilient and adaptable, capable of withstanding both static and dynamic loads while minimising mass and resource requirements.

Furthermore, the design of space habitats need to take into account the potential for growth and expansion. As the need arises for larger or more specialised spaces, the structural architecture must support modular growth and flexibility [40]. This adaptability ensures that space habitats can accommodate evolving mission objectives and changing crew requirements.

In conclusion, the structural integrity of space habitats is a complex and multifaceted challenge, requiring meticulous attention to materials, design, and adaptability. The successful realisation of sustainable and functional space habitats depends on innovative engineering solutions that can withstand the demanding conditions of space.

5.3 Radiation protection

The implementation of radiation protection measures is of paramount importance in the field of space architecture, given that astronauts are subjected to several types of radiation throughout their missions. The deployment of efficient radiation protection measures is necessary due to the adverse effects of radiation on human health and the possible damage it might cause to sensitive equipment. As per the rules established by NASA, it has been determined that some materials, including polyethylene, aluminium, and lead, have the capability to mitigate the detrimental effects of radiation [41]. Furthermore, the incorporation of active radiation monitoring equipment and such as dosimeters and radiation detectors is vital for the prompt of ongoing surveillance and evaluation of radiation levels. These devices facilitate astronauts in implementing suitable measures to reduce their exposure and guarantee their safety. Moreover, the significance of advancing radiation shielding technologies, such as composite materials and magnetic shielding, for the purpose of augmenting radiation protection in space [42], also considering radiation protection in spacecraft design. This involves integrating specific radiation shelters and optimising spacecraft layouts. Through the implementation of radiation protection methods, space architects have the potential to make significant contributions to the general well-being and safety of astronauts during their missions [43].

Several materials and construction techniques have been recognised in the scope of space habitats as efficient for the purpose of radiation shielding. Such materials include:

Polyethylene: This sort of plastic has been recognised for its unsurpassed shielding characteristics against all sorts of radiation. It is also a lightweight material which is preferable to use in tanks or bottles [44]. It can be utilised in spacecraft shielding due to its potential for effective absorption and scattering of radiation.

Water: Water is another material that offers efficient shielding against radiation in virtue of its high hydrogen content. As the latter is sufficiently efficient for slowing down and absorbing high-energy particles, water can be used as a material for shielding space habitats from cosmic rays and solar radiation [45]. Water can be stored in tanks or its tanks can be generally incorporated into the walls of the space habitat.

Regolith: The use of Martian regolith as a potential radiation shield has been studied as a concept. Martian regolith is mainly composed of minerals like iron oxide and basalt, that may be used to absorb and scatter some amount of radiation [46]. Utilising it as a construction material to build up the walls of habitat or by covering habitats with a layer of regolith can also work as an extra layer of shielding against radiation.

Composite materials: Some composite materials, for example, carbon fibre composites are combinations of high strength, relatively low weight, and might function as an effective radiation shield [47]. Incorporating boron or lithium, etc., into them can provide radiation shielding capability without losing the structural integrity of composites.

Lead and polyethylene composite: Lead is a dense material that provides an excellent shield against radiation. In addition, polyethylene offers protection against neutron radiation [43]. It means that the composite discussed shields astronauts against almost all types of radiation.

The identified materials and building techniques are critical to providing adequate shields for astronauts in space habitats [48]. In particular, the shield developed provides maximum protection for crew members during long-distance missions.

5.4 Energy generation and management

In the context of space colonisation and the creation of sustainable extraterrestrial habitats, energy generation and management emerge as critical components. The vast and often inhospitable expanses of space present unique challenges and opportunities concerning the procurement and utilisation of energy resources. This section delves into the intricacies of energy generation and management in the space architecture domain, highlighting their indispensable role in ensuring the long-term viability and functionality of space habitats.

In space habitats, energy serves as the lifeblood, powering essential life support systems, maintaining comfortable living conditions, and fueling various scientific and industrial activities [49]. Consequently, the choice of energy sources and their efficiency in harnessing power from the environment become paramount. Solar power and derived from photovoltaic arrays or solar concentrators and stands as a dominant and renewable energy source in space architecture and especially in Earth’s vicinity [50]. However, the farther one ventures into the cosmos, the more imperative it becomes to explore alternative energy solutions, including nuclear power or even the potential utilisation of extraterrestrial resources, such as lunar regolith for oxygen extraction and hydrogen production [51].

Efficient energy management and storage systems are equally critical, ensuring a continuous power supply during periods of darkness or reduced solar exposure, such as during lunar nights or while orbiting celestial bodies [49]. Advanced energy storage technologies, such as high-capacity batteries and regenerative fuel cells, are essential for maintaining habitat functionality and supporting critical life processes.

Additionally and the implementation of intelligent energy distribution and management systems and complemented by advanced software and automation and is crucial for the efficient utilisation of energy and the reduction of waste and the preservation of energy intensive equipment. These systems are vital in the context of space colonisation, where resources are finite, and energy efficiency is of paramount importance.

In summary, energy generation and management constitute pivotal facets of space architecture, influencing the design, sustainability, and operational efficiency of space habitats. As we venture further into space, the judicious selection and utilisation of energy resources will play an instrumental role in shaping the future of sustainable space colonisation.

5.5 Adaptability and modularity

In the context of sustainable space, habitats, adaptability, and modularity emerge as indispensable design principles. The ability of space habitats to evolve, reconfigure, and accommodate changing requirements and future expansions is paramount for their long-term viability [52]. Habitats are not static entities; they are dynamic environments that must be capable of responding to new expeditions, scientific research endeavours, and population growth efforts.

Adaptability, in the context of space architecture, refers to the capacity of habitats to readily adjust to shifting operational needs and objectives and encompasses the ability to reconfigure internal layouts, modify infrastructure, and integrate new technologies seamlessly [53]. Dynamic nature of space exploration demands habitats that can swiftly adapt to evolving mission profiles, scientific experiments, and unforeseen contingencies.

Modularity, on the other hand, underscores the importance of designing habitats as interconnected, interchangeable modules or components. Architectures allow for the incremental expansion of habitats, enabling the addition of new modules as needed [54]. The strategy improves resource use efficiency and simplifies maintenance and promotes sustainability by eliminating the necessity for the complete replacement of existing structures.

To maintain the long-term functionality and relevance of space habitats, it is imperative that their architectural design places a high priority on the concepts of flexibility and modularity. This flexibility not only caters to immediate mission needs but also positions space habitats as enduring platforms for diverse scientific, commercial, and residential activities in the evolving landscape of space exploration [55].

5.6 Human-centred design

Human-centred design principles are essential for space habitats to achieve the physical and psychological comfort of the occupants. Ergonomic considerations, comfortable workspaces, and good private spaces are essential in maintaining well-being, mental health, and ensuring productivity during long-duration missions in space [56].

5.7 Sustainable construction methods

Sustainable construction methods are of paramount importance in space architecture, as they contribute to the long-term viability and environmental stewardship of space habitats and infrastructure. Adopting sustainable construction practices can minimise the ecological footprint of space missions and reduce resource consumption [57]. One such method is the utilisation of in situ resource utilisation (ISRU), which involves extracting and utilising local resources available on celestial bodies, such as the Moon or Mars, for construction purposes. This approach reduces the need for transporting construction materials from Earth, thereby minimising launch costs and reducing the environmental impact associated with space missions. Additionally, the implementation of 3D printing technology enables on-site construction using locally sourced materials, further enhancing sustainability [58]. Furthermore, the incorporation of modular construction techniques allows for efficient assembly and disassembly of space habitats and facilitates adaptability and reusability. Also, the importance of life cycle assessment (LCA) in evaluating the environmental impact of construction materials and processes, aiding in the selection of sustainable alternatives. By integrating these sustainable construction methods, space architects can contribute to the development of environmentally conscious and resource-efficient space habitats [56].

5.8 Ethical considerations and social spaces

When designing space habitats, it is essential that ethical considerations such as preserving cultural traditions, promoting inclusion, and accurately portraying a wide range of identities be taken into account. To foster a stronger sense of community and facilitate social interaction among space colonists, it is imperative to incorporate social spaces and communal areas into the architectural design [59].

Space habitats can be created to function as safe, sustainable, and enjoyable living environments for human space exploration and colonisation if the aforementioned architectural concerns are properly incorporated into the design process.

In summary, these architectural considerations (Table 1) are crucial for designing sustainable and functional space habitats, ensuring the well-being, safety, and productivity of future space explorers and settlers.

6.1 Resource efficiency

To minimise reliance on regeneration missions from Earth and Space habitats need to concentrate on the optimisation of resource consumption. And that this is done through the use of closed-loop life support systems that, in turn, work on water recycling, air renewal, and waste management [60]. In addition, the design of space habitats should include energy-efficient technology and systems such as advanced insulation, LED lighting, energy management and storage systems. By using resources as efficiently as possible, space settlements can reduce the need for restocking flights and minimise the damage they cause and humans inflict it on the environment [2].

6.2 Recycling and waste management

In the confined and resource-scarce environments of space habitats, efficient recycling systems are paramount to ensure the longevity and self-sufficiency of these habitats. Through advanced technologies such as closed-loop life support systems, astronauts can recover and purify water, regenerate oxygen, and recycle nutrients from organic waste, significantly reducing the need for resupply missions from Earth [61]. Additionally, innovative 3D printing techniques are being explored to repurpose and transform waste materials into useful components, further minimising the generation of waste in space. Furthermore, psychological factors and the well-being of astronauts are considered in waste management strategies, as waste accumulation can lead to stress and discomfort [62]. Therefore, a holistic approach to recycling and waste management is essential and addresses not only the technical aspects but also the psychological and sociological dimensions of human life in space.

6.3 Renewable energy

With regard to renewable energy in space, space habitats necessitate finding renewable energy sources alternative to the traditional energy sources known on Earth. Solar energy is one of the best ways to be applied due to the abundance of sunlight in space [63]. Therefore, space habitats requisite contain solar panels in their design that capture sunlight and convert it into energy and store it for periods of less solar radiation. Solar panels are composed of photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. These panels can be strategically placed on the exterior surfaces of space habitats to maximise solar energy capture. Additionally, other methods or sources of renewable energy such as nuclear energy or renewable fuel cells can be considered to ensure the continued supply of space habitats with sustainable and renewable energy.

Nuclear energy can be harnessed through the use of small modular reactors (SMRs) that are specifically designed for space applications. SMRs offer several advantages including compact sise and high energy density and long operational lifetimes [64]. They can provide a reliable and continuous source of energy for space habitats and especially during periods of reduced solar radiation. Furthermore, renewable fuel cells can be utilised to generate electricity by converting hydrogen and oxygen into water, with the byproduct being electricity and heat. Hydrogen can be obtained from water electrolysis, which can be powered by solar energy. This process ensures a closed-loop system where water is continuously recycled, making it a sustainable and renewable energy source [65].

In conclusion, renewable energy plays a crucial role in the design and operation of space habitats. Solar energy, nuclear energy, and renewable fuel cells are viable options for providing sustainable and renewable energy in space. By incorporating these technologies into the design of space habitats, we can ensure a continuous and reliable energy supply for long-duration space missions [64].

6.4 Closed ecological systems

Closed ecological systems are critical for space habitats’ sustainability as they closely emulate natural ecosystems found on Earth, fostering a harmonious interplay among algae, bacteria, and plants to generate vital life support resources like air, food, and clean water [66]. Consequently, the architectural layout of space habitats must incorporate dedicated spaces for vegetation cultivation, encompassing hydroponic or aerobic systems and meticulous control of temperature and humidity conditions to optimise plant growth [67]. Thus, closed ecosystems prove instrumental in maintaining self-sustaining space habitats, diminishing dependence on external resources and elevating the potential for enduring space exploration missions.

The significance of closed ecological systems in space habitats has been well-established in the literature. Nelson et al. [60] offer a comprehensive examination of the role played by algae, bacteria, and plants within closed ecosystems, particularly in the context of life support for space habitats. They underscore the crucial role of these systems in the production of essential resources for astronauts. Additionally, Allen et al. [68] emphasise the sustainability aspect, elucidating how closed ecosystems contribute to self-sufficiency within space habitats, thereby reducing the necessity for resupply missions. These closed ecological systems are indispensable for the success of extended space missions and the eventual establishment of permanent extraterrestrial settlements.

6.5 Modularity and flexibility

The incorporation of modularity and flexibility represents fundamental design principles that are essential for the development of efficient and sustainable space habitats. The design of the habitat should facilitate changing the layout and adding more space to meet the needs of changing missions and team sises. Habitats’ modular parts and systems make it easy to maintain, repair, and replace equipment, reducing downtime and making the entire system more reliable and secure [69]. Also, flexible layouts and areas that can be changed improve team happiness and well-being during long-term missions.

Designing sustainable and efficient space habitats are critical to ensuring the long-term survival of humans in space. By integrating the principles of resource economy, recycling, waste management, renewable energy, closed and modular ecosystems, creative architectural minds can design space habitats that reduce resource consumption, minimise waste, and ensure the long-term self-sufficiency of space habitats. These considerations that have been mentioned have a major and essential role in creating sustainable and flexible space habitats, which allows for the possibility of exploring and colonising space in the long term.

7.1 Project familiarisation and background research

Mars X-House embodies the result of meticulous research, meticulously delving into Mars’ atmospheric conditions, terrain, and radiation levels. Grounded in scientific insights, the project’s foundation is forged upon comprehensive familiarity with the Martian environment, accentuating its credibility [37].

7.2 Architectural design analysis and format justification

This project unfolds as an architectural marvel and replete with autonomy. The utilisation of 3D printing technology and ISRU techniques underscores its format. The cylindrical design minimises surface area, optimising resource usage while encapsulating inhabitants within a cohesive and functional habitat [70].

7.3 Structural integrity

The Mars X-House project prioritised structural robustness through an innovative combination of composite materials and geometric design. Its primary structural framework utilised advanced carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP) to achieve high tensile strength and resistance to Martian pressure differentials [22]. Geodesic and truss-based structural configurations were employed to distribute loads evenly and ensure stability against potential seismic events on Mars. The use of 3D-printed regolith blocks, derived from Martian soil, further fortified the habitat’s structural integrity and minimised material transport from Earth [37].

7.4 Sustainability

The sustainability of Mars House was carefully woven into its structure. The habitat incorporated closed-loop recycling systems that repurposed waste, carbon dioxide, and water to nurture plant growth within hydroponic farms. The process mimicked Earth’s ecosystems, promoting a harmonious interaction between the built environment and natural cycles. Additionally, the project harnessed natural light through strategically positioned windows and integrated photovoltaic panels to harness solar energy, minimising the ecological footprint while ensuring longevity [76].

7.5 Power generation and storage

Mars House embraced a multifaceted approach to power generation and storage. The habitat integrates advanced solar panel technology, strategically positioned on the cylindrical surface to harness solar energy. Solar arrays, optimised for the Martian environment, efficiently converted sunlight into electrical energy, while regenerative fuel cells and energy storage systems ensured uninterrupted power supply during periods of low sunlight [77]. An innovative aspect was the utilisation of piezoelectric materials within structural components to convert vibrations and mechanical stress into electricity, further enhancing the habitat’s energy self-sufficiency. Energy storage employs innovative battery technologies, ensuring a consistent power supply even during dust storms [78].

7.6 Resource use and sustainability

The design of Mars X-House embraces the philosophy of self-sustenance, with a focus on resource utilisation. The regolith-based construction serves a dual purpose, providing both structural support and reflecting the use of indigenous resources (Figure 2). This approach reduces the need for constant resource replenishment from Earth, aligning with the project’s environmental consciousness. The previous iteration, Mars House 1, also prioritised resource utilisation in its design. The habitat showed new ways to get and use local materials and like Martian regolith and ice and as part of its building and systems for keeping life going. These strategies exemplified the concept of ISRU. By incorporating resource-efficient design principles, the habitat significantly decreased its reliance on Earth for vital supplies, ultimately enhancing its overall sustainability [77].

Figure 2

A render showing the printing of the outermost layer of the Martian base designed by SEArch+/Apis Cor [75] images credit SEArch+/Apis Cor.

7.7 Radiation resistance

The project’s design incorporated multi-layered radiation shielding comprising materials like polyethylene, borated polyethylene, and high-density polyethylene, effectively attenuating cosmic and solar radiation [77]. This innovative approach ensured the protection of inhabitants against prolonged radiation exposure (Figure 3). The habitat’s regolith-infused design is pivotal in achieving radiation resistance, as the inherent properties of Martian regolith manifest as an effective shield against cosmic radiation, safeguarding inhabitants’ health and underscoring its innovative engineering [79].

Figure 3

Layered Wall Composition Mars X-House [80] images credit SEArch+/Apis Cor.

7.8 Life support systems

Closed loop life support systems support a whole person approach to life support. Interior spaces are adorned with biophilic design, fostering psychological well-being. Concurrently, hydroponic farming rejuvenates the habitat’s environment, exemplifying harmonious coexistence [81].

7.9 Self-sufficiency

The project’s self sufficiency is a consequence of its regolith based design. Mars X-House builds a mutually beneficial relationship with the planet’s resources by using its own materials. This lowers its reliance on outside supplies and sets it on a path to independence [77].

7.10 Psychological and physical well-being

Biophilic design intertwines nature and space, creating a milieu conducive to inhabitants’ well-being (Figure 4). Sunlight emulation and green spaces and sensory stimulation offer a psychological sanctuary and infusing vitality into the human spirit [82].

Figure 4

The wardroom of the X-House is also called a multipurpose room or mess house [80] images credit SEArch+/Apis Cor.

7.11 Adaptability and expansion

The project, designed with adaptability in mind, envisions future expansion modules. The cylindrical design facilitates radial expansion, enabling the integration of new living or functional spaces, fostering a harmonious coexistence with the ever-evolving Martian frontier [77].

In the end, a case study focused on designing a sustainable habitat for human habitation on Mars. The table highlights whether each architectural consideration has been achieved or not.

The analysis reveals that several key architectural considerations have been successfully achieved in the Mars X-House project. These include sustainability, life support systems, power generation and storage, resource use and sustainability, radiation resistance, self-sufficiency, psychological and physical well-being, and adaptability and expansion.

The Mars X-House project demonstrates a holistic approach to architectural design, incorporating innovative solutions to ensure the well-being and sustainability of future Martian habitats. By achieving these architectural considerations, this project aims to create a self-sufficient, harmonious, and sustainable abode on Mars.

Lastly, Mars X-House is a symbol of human desire and a unique example of how to combine space themes with modern architectural design. With every element meticulously curated, it embarks on a journey towards a self-sufficient, harmonious, and sustainable Martian abode.

8.1 Synergetic ecosystems and bioregenerative life support

Future space habitats are likely to embrace synergetic ecosystems that mimic Earth’s natural cycles. Advanced bioregenerative life support systems aim to replicate Earth-like cycles of air, water, and nutrient recycling, ensuring a continuous and sustainable supply of essential resources within space habitats. Bioregenerative systems, when combined with controlled ecological farming modules, provide a holistic framework for sustaining human life in extraterrestrial environments.

8.2 3D printing and ISRU

As humanity advances in technology, 3D printing and ISRU will play pivotal roles in building space habitats. Martian regolith and for instance and could be transformed into construction materials using additive manufacturing techniques and reducing the need to transport heavy building materials from Earth [83]. ISRU technologies also extend to extracting resources such as ice water to support life and produce fuels and reduce reliance on costly Earth resources.

8.3 Artificial intelligence and robotic construction

The merger of artificial intelligence and robotics holds transformative potential for space habitat construction. Autonomous robots could be deployed to prepare construction sites and assemble habitat modules and conduct intricate tasks in challenging environments. Machine learning algorithms could optimise habitat designs based on real time data feedback and adapting to changing conditions and ensuring efficient resource utilisation [84].

8.4 Virtual reality and human-centred design

Advancements in virtual reality (VR) technology will revolutionise the human centered design process. Architects and engineers can collaboratively design and simulate habitats and fine tuning ergonomic and psychological aspects before physical construction. VR environments could also serve as training grounds for astronauts and preparing them for the challenges of confined living spaces and extravehicular activities [85].

9.1 Findings from the literature review

9.2 Findings from the Mars X-House case study