Blamed for mass murder, hailed as messiah: A content analysis of e-mails to high-profile scientific experts during the COVID-19 pandemic

References

Arafah, B., Hasyim, M., & Kapoyos, F. E. (2021). E-democracy and the parrhesia language of netizen towards COVID-19 pandemic. Linguistics and Culture Review, 5(s1), 422–438. https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5nS1.142810.21744/lingcure.v5nS1.1428Search in Google Scholar

Aupers, S., & Houtman, D. (2006). Beyond the spiritual supermarket: The social and public significance of New Age spirituality. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 21(2), 201–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/1353790060065589410.1080/13537900600655894Search in Google Scholar

Azungah, T. (2018). Qualitative research: Deductive and inductive approaches to data analysis. Qualitative Research Journal, 18(4), 383–400. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRJ-D-18-0003510.1108/QRJ-D-18-00035Search in Google Scholar

Becker, L. C. (1996). Trust as noncognitive security about motives. Ethics, 107(1), 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1086/23369610.1086/233696Search in Google Scholar

Bogner, A. (2021). Die Epistemisierung des Politischen. Wie die Macht des Wissens die Demokratie gefährdet [The epistemization of the political. How the power of knowledge endangers democracy]. Politische Vierteljahresschrift, 63, 133–135. Reclam Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11615-021-00372-510.1007/s11615-021-00372-5Search in Google Scholar

Chia, A., Ong, J. C., Davies, H., & Hagood, M. (2021). “Everything is connected.” Networked conspirituality in New Age media. Presented at the Annual Conference of the Association of Internet Researchers. https://doi.org/10.5210/spir.v2021i0.1209310.5210/spir.v2021i0.12093Search in Google Scholar

Cologna, V., Mede, N. G., Berger, S., Besley, J., Brick, C., Joubert, M., …, & Metag, J. (2025). Trust in scientists and their role in society across 68 countries. Nature Human Behaviour, 9, 713–730. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-02090-510.31219/osf.io/6ay7sSearch in Google Scholar

Cortois, L., & Pons-de Wit, A. (2021). Elective affinities between religion and neuroscience: The cases of conservative protestantism and mindfulness spirituality. In D. Houtman, S. Aupers, & R. Laermans (Eds.), Science under siege (pp. 115–132). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69649-8_510.1007/978-3-030-69649-8_5Search in Google Scholar

De Coninck, D., d’Haenens, L., & Matthijs, K. (2020). Forgotten key players in public health: News media as agents of information and persuasion during the COVID-19 pandemic. Public Health, 183, 65–66. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.05.01110.1016/j.puhe.2020.05.011Search in Google Scholar

De Coninck, D., Frissen, T., Matthijs, K., d’Haenens, L., Lits, G., Champagne-Poirier, O., Carignan, M.-E., David, M. D., Pignard-Cheynel, N., Salerno, S., & Généreux, M. (2021). Beliefs in conspiracy theories and misinformation about COVID-19: Comparative perspectives on the role of anxiety, depression and exposure to and trust in information sources. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.64639410.3389/fpsyg.2021.646394Search in Google Scholar

Delporte, M., De Coninck, D., d’Haenens, L., Luyts, M., Verbeke, G., Molenberghs, G., & Matthijs, K. (2023). A longitudinal perspective on perceived vulnerability to disease during the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium. Health Promotion International, 38(2). https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daad02610.1093/heapro/daad026Search in Google Scholar

Desmond, H. (2022). Status distrust of scientific experts. Social Epistemology, 36(5), 586–600. https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2022.210475810.1080/02691728.2022.2104758Search in Google Scholar

Durkheim, E. (1912). Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse [The elementary forms of religious life]. Alcan.Search in Google Scholar

Earle, T. C., Siegrist, M., & Gutscher, H. (2001). The influence of trust and confidence on perceived risks and cooperation. Risk Analysis, 20, 713–719. https://doi.org/10.23919/EMC.2001.1079183710.23919/EMC.2001.10791837Search in Google Scholar

Foucault, M. (1975). Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la prison [Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison]. Gallimard.Search in Google Scholar

Foucault, M. (2011). The courage of truth. Palgrave Macmillan.Search in Google Scholar

Freeman, D., Waite, F., Rosebrock, L., Petit, A., Causier, C., East, A., Jenner, L., Teale, A. L., Carr, L., Mulhall, S., Bold, E., & Lambe, S. (2022). Coronavirus conspiracy beliefs, mistrust, and compliance with government guidelines in England. Psychological Medicine, 52(2), 251–263. https://doi.org/10.1017/s003329172000189010.1017/S0033291720001890Search in Google Scholar

Gerbaudo, P. (2020). The pandemic crowd. Journal of International Affairs: Protest in the Time of COVID-19, 73(2), 61–76.Search in Google Scholar

Hatch, J. A. (2002). Doing qualitative research in education settings. Suny Press.Search in Google Scholar

Heelas, P. (1996). The New Age movement: The celebration of the self and the sacralization of modernity. Blackwell.Search in Google Scholar

Hirschi, C. (2021). Expertise in der Krise. Zur Totalisierung der Expertenrolle in der Euro-, Klima- und Coronakrise [Expertise in crisis. On the totalization of the expert role in the Euro, climate, and Corona crises]. In S. Büttner & T. Laux (Eds.), Umstrittene Expertise (pp. 159–186). Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft.10.5771/9783748911418-159Search in Google Scholar

Højme, P. (2022). Biopolitics and the COVID-19 pandemic: A Foucauldian interpretation of the Danish government’s response to the pandemic. Philosophies, 7(2), 1–11. http://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies702003410.3390/philosophies7020034Search in Google Scholar

Houtman, D., Aupers, S., & Laermans, R. (2021). Introduction: A cultural sociology of the authority of science. In D. Houtman, S. Aupers, & R. Laermans (Eds.), Science under siege (pp. 1–34). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69649-8_110.1007/978-3-030-69649-8_1Search in Google Scholar

Institute for Media Studies, & LIBIS (2021). iCANDID. https://doi.org/10.57991/3EDN-XJ49Search in Google Scholar

Jennings, W., Stoker, G., Valgarðsson, V., Devine, D., & Gaskell, J. (2021). How trust, mistrust and distrust shape the governance of the COVID-19 crisis. Journal of European Public Policy, 28(8), 1174–1196. http://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2021.194215110.1080/13501763.2021.1942151Search in Google Scholar

Kesselheim, A. S., Robertson, C. T., Myers, J. A., Rose, S. L., Gillet, V., Ross, K. M., … & Avorn, J. (2012). A randomized study of how physicians interpret research funding disclosures. New England Journal of Medicine, 367(12), 1119–1127. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa120239710.1056/NEJMsa1202397Search in Google Scholar

Koetke, J., Schumann, K., Bowes, S. M., & Vaupotič, N. (2025). The effect of seeing scientists as intellectually humble on trust in scientists and their research. Nature Human Behaviour, 9, 331–344. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-02060-x10.1038/s41562-024-02060-xSearch in Google Scholar

Kosarkova, A., Malinakova, K., van Dijk, J. P., & Tavel, P. (2021). Vaccine refusal in the Czech Republic is associated with being spiritual but not religiously affiliated. Vaccines, 9(10), 1157. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines910115710.3390/vaccines9101157Search in Google Scholar

Kuckartz, U. (2019). Qualitative text analysis: A systematic approach. In G. Kaiser & N. Presmeg (Eds.), Compendium for early career researchers in mathematics education. (pp. 181–197). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15636-7_810.1007/978-3-030-15636-7_8Search in Google Scholar

Kyngäs, H., & Kaakinen, P. (2019). Deductive content analysis. In H. Kyngäs, K. Mikkonen, & M. Kääriäinen (Eds.), The application of content analysis in nursing science research (pp. 23–30). Springer International. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30199-6_310.1007/978-3-030-30199-6_3Search in Google Scholar

Laermans, R. (2021). Gedeelde angsten [Shared fears]. Boom.Search in Google Scholar

Latour, B. (1987). Science in action. Harvard University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Lenard, P. T. (2008). Trust your compatriots, but count your change: The roles of trust, mistrust and distrust in democracy. Political Studies, 56(2), 312–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2007.00693.x10.1111/j.1467-9248.2007.00693.xSearch in Google Scholar

Lissack, M., & Meagher, B. (2021). Humility in design may be hubris in science: Reflections on the problem of Slodderwetenschap (Sloppy Science). She Ji: The Journal of Design, Economics, and Innovation, 7(4), 516–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sheji.2021.10.00110.1016/j.sheji.2021.10.001Search in Google Scholar

Luhmann, N. (1979). Trust and power. Wiley.Search in Google Scholar

Makowska, M., Boguszewski, R., & Podkowińska, M. (2022). Trust in medicine as a factor conditioning behaviors recommended by healthcare experts during the COVID–19 pandemic in Poland. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 605. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph1901060510.3390/ijerph19010605Search in Google Scholar

Marien, S., & Hooghe, M. (2011). Does political trust matter? An empirical investigation into the relation between political trust and support for law compliance. European Journal of Political Research, 50(2), 267–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2010.01930.x10.1111/j.1475-6765.2010.01930.xSearch in Google Scholar

Mercadante, L. (2020). Spiritual struggles of nones and ‘spiritual but not religious’(SBNRs). Religions, 11(10), 513. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel1110051310.3390/rel11100513Search in Google Scholar

Morse, J. (2008). Confusing categories and themes. Qualitative Health Research, 18(6), 727–728. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973230831493010.1177/1049732308314930Search in Google Scholar

Nadelson, L. S., & Hardy, K. K. (2015). Trust in science and scientists and the acceptance of evolution. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 8(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12052-015-0037-410.1186/s12052-015-0037-4Search in Google Scholar

Norris, P. (2022). In praise of skepticism. Trust but verify. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197530108.001.000110.1093/oso/9780197530108.001.0001Search in Google Scholar

O’Connor, C., & Joffe, H. (2020). Intercoder reliability in qualitative research: Debates and practical guidelines. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 19. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940691989922010.1177/1609406919899220Search in Google Scholar

Oksanen, A., Celuch, M., Latikka, R., Oksa, R., & Savela, N. (2022). Hate and harassment in academia: The rising concern of the online environment. Higher Education, 84(3), 541–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-021-00787-410.1007/s10734-021-00787-4Search in Google Scholar

Oreskes, N. (2022). The trouble with the supply-side model of science. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy, 88(4), 824–828. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43538-022-00121-110.1007/s43538-022-00121-1Search in Google Scholar

Pietrini, P., Lavazza, A., & Farina, M. (2022). COVID-19 and biomedical experts: When epistemic authority is (probably) not enough. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry, 19(1), 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11673-021-10157-510.1007/s11673-021-10157-5Search in Google Scholar

Rutjens, B. T., van der Linden, S., & van der Lee, R. (2021). Science skepticism in times of COVID-19. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(2), 276–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/136843022098141510.1177/1368430220981415Search in Google Scholar

Samer, C., Lacombe, K., & Calmy, A. (2020). Cyber harassment of female scientists will not be the new norm. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 21(4), 457–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30944-010.1016/S1473-3099(20)30944-0Search in Google Scholar

Savin-Baden, M., & Howell Major, C. (2013). Qualitative research – The essential guide to theory and practice. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/978100337798610.4324/9781003377986Search in Google Scholar

Shanka, M. S., & Menebo, M. M. (2022). When and how trust in government leads to compliance with COVID-19 precautionary measures. Journal of Business Research, 139, 1275–1283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.10.03610.1016/j.jbusres.2021.10.036Search in Google Scholar

Siegrist, M., & Cvetkovich, G. (2002). Perception of hazards: The role of social trust and knowledge. Risk Analysis, 20(5), 713–720. https://doi.org/10.1111/0272-4332.20506410.1111/0272-4332.205064Search in Google Scholar

Sorell, T. (2013[1994]). Scientism: Philosophy and the infatuation with science. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/978020342697510.4324/9780203426975Search in Google Scholar

Svartvatten, N., Segerlund, M., Dennhag, I., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2015). A content analysis of client e-mails in guided internet-based cognitive behavior therapy for depression. Internet Interventions, 2(2), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2015.02.00410.1016/j.invent.2015.02.004Search in Google Scholar

Van Bavel, J. J., Baicker, K., Boggio, P. S., Capraro, V., Cichocka, A., Cikara, M., …, & Willer, R. (2020). Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(5), 460–471. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0884-z10.1038/s41562-020-0884-zSearch in Google Scholar

Van Dijck, J., & Alinejad, D. (2020). Social media and trust in scientific expertise: Debating the Covid-19 pandemic in the Netherlands. Social Media + Society, 6(4), https://doi.org/10.1177/205630512098105710.1177/2056305120981057Search in Google Scholar

Verhoogen, L., & Verhoeven, H. (2020). Wetenschapsbarometer 2020: Onderzoeksrapport [Science barometer 2020: Research report]. Flemish Department of Economy, Science and Innovation. Retrieved March 11, 2024 from https://www.wetenschapsbarometer.be/Search in Google Scholar

Ward, C., & Voas, D. (2011). The emergence of conspirituality. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 26(1), 103–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2011.53984610.1080/13537903.2011.539846Search in Google Scholar

Watts, G. (2022). The spiritual turn: The religion of the heart and the making of romantic liberal modernity. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192859839.001.000110.1093/oso/9780192859839.001.0001Search in Google Scholar