Study on the Overseas Marketing, Application and Collection of Chinese Silk Exported in Late Ming Dynasty
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Hui Ma
Hui Ma, graduated from the Art Research Institute of Nanjing University of the Arts, holds a Masters degree in Art History, a PhD candidate in the School of History, Anthropology, Philosophy and Politics at Queen's University Belfast.
Abstract
In the late Ming Dynasty, the decline of the tribute trade and changes in China’s maritime prohibition policies led to a substantial export of Chinese silk. Late 16th century, the Portuguese occupied the triangular trade to Lisbon. The Spanish, through the Manila galleon trade, sold Chinese silk to their colonies in the Americas. In Europe, Chinese silk was used in household items, religious garments, and diplomatic gifts, symbolizing exotic luxury. In the Americas, Chinese silk replaced European silk, becoming widely used in the daily lives of the upper class as well as in religious and political activities. The wide spread of silk in the late Ming Dynasty, while forming cross-cultural influence, also unknowingly shaped China’s image overseas. Today, a considerable number of late Ming silk textiles are preserved in overseas collections. This study leverages representative Ming Dynasty silk textiles housed in international museums to analyze their incorporation of traditional Chinese styles and Western elements, exploring the overseas utilization of late Ming export silk. It aims to illustrate the artistic dissemination along the maritime Silk Road during this period and it also highlights the far-reaching influence of Chinese silk on global cultural exchanges in the late Ming Dynasty.
1 Overseas Trade Network of Silk Exported in Late Ming Dynasty
During the Ming dynasty, China maintained frequent trade relations with Japan. Unlike the Yuan dynasty, the early Ming government adopted a conciliatory and open foreign policy characterized by peaceful engagement. In managing relations with Japan, the Ming court actively sought cooperation with the Japanese shogunate to mitigate coastal pirate disturbances. Japan exhibited substantial demand for Chinese silk textiles during this period. Despite advancements in Japan’s domestic silk-weaving industry by the late 16th century, its raw silk production remained insufficient to meet domestic demand, necessitating continued reliance on Chinese imports. Silk products from Jiangnan primarily reached Japan through two channels: first, as diplomatic gifts bestowed by Ming emperors to Japanese rulers, reflecting both statecraft and the hierarchical nature of bilateral relations; second, via tributary trade (kanhe trade) in the early Ming and increasingly through private maritime commerce in the mid-to-late Ming period. These exchanges underscore the interplay between diplomacy and economic pragmatism in East Asian trade networks (Lei et al. 2022).
Portugal emerged as the first European power to establish direct contact with China. Following Vasco da Gama’s pioneering voyage to Calicut (1497–1498), which opened the Europe-India maritime route, Portuguese influence expanded across Asia. After conquering Malacca in 1511, Portugal turned its attention to China’s commercial potential. Jorge Álvares led the first documented Portuguese expedition to China in 1513, arriving at Tunmen (Tamão) near the Pearl River Delta. This mission initiated Sino-Portuguese trade in spices and Chinese goods, with subsequent voyages consolidating the Lisbon-Goa-Malacca-Macau maritime corridor. This route facilitated the transport of Asian commodities, including silk, to Europe via the Cape of Good Hope, marking Portugal’s critical role in early modern global trade networks.
By the late 16th century, Spanish colonial endeavors reshaped trans-Pacific exchanges. The Spanish occupation of Manila in 1571 transformed the city into a nexus for Sino-American trade via the Manila Galleon route. Initiated by Miguel López de Legazpi’s 1565 expedition, this trade linked Acapulco in Mexico to Manila, enabling the large-scale exchange of Chinese silk for American silver. The galleon trade, operational for over two centuries, not only integrated Asian and American economies but also reconfigured global silk production networks (Fan 2018). Historians recognize the Manila Galleon system as a seminal development in early globalization, often termed the “birthplace of world trade” for its role in bridging continental markets and accelerating cultural and material circulations across the Pacific (Flynn and Giráldez 1995).
2 Analysis of Cross-Cultural Application Scenarios of Export Silk
Currently, many overseas institutions, including museums, research institutions, and religious organizations, have collections of Chinese Ming Dynasty silk, such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art in the United States, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and the V&A Museum in the United Kingdom and so on. Although there are few definitive archaeological documents confirming their exact origins, recent historical studies have demonstrated that in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties (16th and 17th centuries), the triangular trade from Portuguese-controlled Macau to Japan to Lisbon and the silver trade promoted by the Spanish Manila galleon led to significant global sales of Chinese silk. These silk fabrics included both domestic products and those produced for the Western market. Museum collections often vividly showcase the cultural interaction during the Great Voyage through the fusion of decorative arts on silk. These exported silks not only retain traditional Chinese styles and aesthetics but also incorporate unique Western elements, reflecting the direct encounter and dialogue between Chinese and Western cultures amid late Ming globalization.
2.1 Japan: Cultural Ritual and Technological Innovation
The National Museum in Kyoto, Japan, has a collection of many pieces of Chinese Ming Dynasty rhomboid Kinrande, which were woven in 16th-century China and exported to Japan, often used as an important gift in tribute trade between China and Japan in the Ming Dynasty, according to documents. For example, the “ Ming Convention ” noted that the Yongle period gave the Japanese diplomatic corps, “ Ambassador and Deputy Ambassador, each member was given a Kinrande cassock.” (Li and Shen 2007)
2.1.1 Japanese Market’s Inheritance of Chinese Art Elements
The reception of Chinese exported silk textiles in the Japanese market during the Ming dynasty emerged through cultural exchange and commercial trade. Concurrently, Japan’s demand for and aesthetic preferences toward Ming-era silks reciprocally influenced the artistic characteristics of Jiangnan-produced textiles exported to Japan. This dynamic stimulated stylistic adaptations and innovations tailored to meet the specific demands of the Japanese market. Chinese silk producers adjusted and innovated in design and technique, modifying color palettes, motifs, and materials. Consequently, silks exported to Japan exhibited distinct artistic features that diverged from traditional Chinese textiles.
Jiangnan silks exported to Japan retained many classical Chinese decorative motifs, preserving elements of traditional aesthetics while acquiring new artistic vitality through cross-cultural interaction with Japanese sensibilities. The Tangcao (scrolling vine) motif, named for its prominence during the Tang dynasty, exemplifies this cultural synthesis. In Japan, this motif – introduced as an exotic design during the Tang period – gradually evolved into a distinctive cultural symbol. The term karakusa (Tangcao in Japanese) first appeared during the Heian period (794–1185), formalizing its identification with Chinese-inspired scrolling patterns. Today, the Tangcao motif remains widely recognized in East Asia, celebrated for its historical depth and transcultural journey. Characterized by dynamic, rhythmic patterns, it transcends mere ornamentation, embodying the inheritance and reinterpretation of historical and cultural traditions.
2.1.2 Japan’s Acceptance and Reconstruction of Silk Patterns of Ming and Qing Dynasties
The cultural, artistic, and technological exchanges between Japan and China have a long history, with particularly notable interactions in the textile domain. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Chinese silk was renowned for its exquisite craftsmanship and rich motifs. These designs were not only widely adopted by Japanese textile artisans but also underwent unique reinterpretation and localization, forming a distinctively Japanese textile tradition.
Jiangnan silk textiles exported to Japan retained many traditional Chinese motifs. These elements preserved the essence of classical Chinese aesthetics while acquiring new artistic vitality through interaction with Japanese culture. For instance, Chinese producers adapted to Japanese preferences by employing subdued color palettes and expressive, minimalist patterns. Additionally, motifs aligned with Japanese aesthetics, such as the kiri (paulownia) floral design, were incorporated into exported silks. These adaptations enriched the decorative repertoire of silk textiles, resulting in a hybrid Sino-Japanese style. The kiri motif holds profound cultural and historical significance in Japan, widely appearing in traditional arts and crafts, including kimonos, furniture, ceramics, and family crests (kamon). The paulownia tree, revered as a symbol of nobility and auspiciousness, is traditionally associated with imperial and aristocratic authority. Legend holds that the paulownia attracts phoenixes, imbuing its motif with connotations of peace, prosperity, and longevity. Furthermore, the wood’s durability and lightness made it ideal for crafting musical instruments and storage containers, reinforcing the motif’s symbolism of protection and endurance.
A notable example is a gold brocade (kinran) with kiri motifs housed in the Kyoto National Museum (see Figure 1). Museum records attribute its production to the late Ming dynasty (17th century). Given the concentration of Jiangnan as the primary hub for non-traditional export silks during this period, this brocade likely originated from Jiangnan weavers. Its design features simplified arrangements of paulownia leaves and blossoms in repetitive patterns. Such motifs were employed not only in kimono designs as elegant embellishments but also in kamon, Japan’s heraldic symbols analogous to Western family crests (Liu and Yan 2018). Within kamon, the kiri motif occupies a prominent position, denoting familial status, heritage, and cultural values – particularly among imperial and aristocratic lineages, underscoring its exceptional symbolic significance.
Kiri motif gold brocade source: Kyoto National Museum, Japan
The evolution of Jiangnan silk motifs exported to Japan reflects both the depth of Sino-Japanese cultural exchange and the distinctive features of cross-cultural artistic integration. As these textiles entered the Japanese market, traditional Chinese designs increasingly merged with indigenous cultural elements and aesthetic preferences. This synthesis produced novel motifs that preserved Chinese stylistic roots while assimilating Japanese characteristics, resulting in late Ming export silks that epitomized transcultural artistic expression.
2.2 The Americas: Religious Life and the Transformation of Mass Consumption
This crowned double-headed eagle silk fabric, housed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in the United States, dates to the late 16th century China (see Figure 2). During this period, China produced many silk fabrics for Portugal and Spain, catering to European aesthetics. These textiles were used in furniture and liturgical vestments, and the growing European demand led to the development of silk weaving workshops and an increase in craftsmen. The methods employed varied based on patterns, customer preferences, and the nature of the commission. Many Chinese silks incorporated European decorative elements from Christian, emblematic, mythological, or decorative sources. Some pieces blended European and Chinese styles, showcasing cross-cultural integration. However, many orders focused mainly on fabric variety and texture, with less emphasis on detailed patterns, resulting in the common export of traditional Chinese-style silk products.
Textile with crowned double headed eagles source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
The main pattern of the fabric features double-headed eagles wearing crowns, typical of textiles woven by China for the Portuguese and Spanish markets in the 16th century. The double-headed eagle originates from the Byzantines, symbolizing the absolute orthodoxy of the royal family. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Portugal and Spain, ruled by the Habsburg family, adopted this symbol to represent their power. The double-headed eagle, heart, and arrow combination symbolizes the Order of St. Augustine, funded by the Habsburgs, reflecting royal support for the church. The heart pierced by an arrow is associated with the Augustinian order, and the vase is a popular Chinese motif. This work likely results from the weavers’ creative interpretation, blending these elements.
Although the pattern, color and layout of the entire silk fabric are distinctly European, the influence of Chinese style can be seen in many details. For example, the shape of the leaves on the tangled branches is not the same as that of the traditional European acanthus leaves, but more similar to that of Chinese silk. In addition, dark blue flowers are the traditional peony patterns in China. In the Ming Dynasty, the peonies with tangled branches are auspicious patterns. Their unique composition is presented in a twisted and winding form, which integrates the traditional Chinese composition rules and the pursuit of auspicious meanings in the secular life of the Ming Dynasty, showing strong vitality. What’s more, the feathers on the neck and chest of the eagle in this silk fabric are very similar to the way the Chinese weavers express the phoenix image, possibly because the weavers modified the details in the sample to incorporate Chinese elements into the fabric laid out throughout Europe.
2.2.1 Change of Trade and Consumption Culture
Through the Manila Galleon trade in the late Ming dynasty, Chinese silk textiles achieved widespread circulation in the Americas. Initially reserved for elite consumption as symbols of status and prestige, these textiles gradually permeated broader social strata in Spanish America due to their high quality and affordability. This shift reflected evolving consumer cultures and the democratization of silk from exclusive luxury to common commodity. Members of the Philippine, New Spanish, and Castilian aristocracy – alongside high-ranking figures in religious, colonial, royal, and municipal administration – constituted key agents in the transmission of Asian goods and cultural orders. These silks circulated not only as diplomatic gifts or bespoke items but also as social lubricants among merchants. For instance, in 1627, a commercial agent in Veracruz requested his counterpart to procure “silk stockings and trinkets from China as gifts for cousins and children,” underscoring their role in sustaining interpersonal trust (Espinel 1627).
The Catholic Church played a pivotal role in disseminating Chinese silks, leveraging its global networks to facilitate their circulation across the empire. Ecclesiastical institutions frequently commissioned Chinese silks and other Asian goods, integrating them into religious rituals. This adoption enriched the material culture of American religious practices while amplifying spiritual influence, exemplifying the silent yet profound outcomes of cross-cultural exchange (Gasch-Tomás 2019).
A notable case involves Manila Archbishop Don Diego Vázquez de Mercado, who in 1615 dispatched two bolts of raw silk and 16 velvet shawls adorned with Castilian coats of arms from China to Spain, alongside four bedspreads bearing his heraldic crest from India to his nephew, Madrid councilman Don Pedro Vázquez de Mercado. These commissions – featuring European motifs such as coats of arms – represent some of the earliest documented orders for Asian goods customized with Christian and Western themes by Castilian elites via the Philippines and New Spain, paralleling contemporary Portuguese elite commissions through Macau.
By the early 17th century, the eclectic adoption of foreign goods and practices among American elites fostered hybrid cultural norms, reflecting the nascent formation of a distinct colonial identity. Unlike European elites, who prized Asian commodities like porcelain and silk as rare collectibles for ostentatious display, Spanish American colonists valued these items for their utility, integrating them into daily life as markers of comfort, convenience, and fashion. This divergence signaled an emergent “modern” consumption paradigm, where value derived not merely from rarity or provenance but from functionality and social integration (Bayly 2002).
Through widespread societal acceptance and dual roles in religious and decorative contexts, late Ming export silks demonstrated unique artistic and aesthetic value. Their circulation not only facilitated material and cultural exchanges but also deepened mutual understanding and recognition between Eastern and Western civilizations.
2.2.2 Chinese Silk in Religious Ceremonies
During the late Ming period, the expansion of global trade networks and the gradual liberalization of China’s foreign trade policies enabled European merchants – particularly from Portugal and Spain – to actively engage in Sino-European silk trade. Leveraging commercial hubs in Macau and Manila, these traders procured vast quantities of finely crafted silk textiles, predominantly from Jiangnan, for distribution across European and American markets. This trade encompassed not only raw silk but also finished luxury goods, yielding unprecedented economic returns. The fervent demand for Chinese silks in the West spurred artisans and producers to refine weaving techniques and innovate designs tailored to European aesthetic preferences. Consequently, Chinese silks increasingly incorporated Western motifs, while their advanced craftsmanship and cross-cultural patterns gained further sophistication.
In the religious sphere, Ming-era silk textiles transcended material value, becoming integral to ritual practices and expressions of faith. Despite stylistic disparities with traditional Christian iconography, their use in ecclesiastical ceremonies enhanced solemnity and sacredness. Catholic institutions, notably the Jesuits, extensively employed Chinese silks in crafting liturgical vestments and adorning church interiors. This adoption stemmed not only from their exquisite artistry but also from the exotic cultural and spiritual symbolism they embodied, which imbued rituals with unique significance. For instance, imported silks were utilized in festivals organized by American monastic orders to create ceremonial garments – robes, shirts, shawls, and tunics – as well as liturgical ornaments such as altar frontals, tapestries, curtains, canopies, and pavilions for decorating sacred and urban spaces. Even mandarin rank badges (buzi), originally part of Chinese official attire, were repurposed as ecclesiastical decorations in the Americas. By integrating Chinese silk craftsmanship into religious regalia and church adornments, Western ecclesiastical authorities fostered a Sino-Western hybrid style. This synthesis amplified the ritualistic ambiance, elevated the aesthetic and spiritual dimensions of worship, and epitomized cultural interchange between East and West. Silk textiles thus emerged as vital media for transmitting religious sentiment and shaping cross-cultural identity.
2.3 Europe: Symbols of Power and the Spread of Religion
The Peabody Essex Museum in Salem holds a Chinese-made brocade chasuble, woven circa 1600, exemplifying the skillful integration of Chinese silk-weaving techniques with Western motifs. The vibrant purple textile features pairs of standing lions facing each other flanking a brocaded orb, adorned with crowns above and below, interspersed with chrysanthemum and plum blossoms (see Figure 3). While the bipedal lions and crowns reflect European heraldic traditions, the floral motifs retain distinct Chinese stylistic elements. These lions were likely woven by Chinese artisans based on European patrons’ provided designs or printed patterns, illustrating cross-cultural collaboration.
Lion print vestments source: Peabody Essex Museum.
From the inception of Sino-European trade, European royalty and nobility emerged as primary consumers of Chinese silks, prominently utilizing them in religious and ceremonial contexts. Heraldic symbols – such as royal coats of arms, familial crests, and institutional emblems – were embroidered onto these luxurious textiles, serving as potent markers of political power and maritime prestige. Among these exported motifs, the rampant lion (a bipedal lion symbolizing authority) became a recurring feature in Western aristocratic iconography.
The lion, as a cultural symbol, holds diverse significance across global art and religion. Originating in ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, and Persian art, the motif traveled via Persia to India and entered China around the 4th century CE with the spread of Buddhism. In China, the lion underwent dramatic reinterpretation: artisans softened its fierce demeanor, blending it with features of domestic dogs to create guardian lion statues for Buddhist temples. This transformation – contrasting sharply with Europe’s majestic lion imagery – epitomizes cultural adaptation and syncretism.
Notably, the orb with ribbons positioned between the lions on the chasuble parallels the traditional Chinese shuangshi xiqiu (“twin lions playing with a ball”) motif. While the Chinese design typically depicts lions playfully interacting with a ball (symbolizing auspiciousness and harmony), the chasuble’s static, symmetrical arrangement of lions flanking a central orb reflects a fusion of Eastern and Western decorative conventions. This divergence underscores the textile’s hybrid nature.
Early Portuguese acquisitions of Chinese silks survive primarily in archival records. For instance, a 1522 inventory of King Manuel I’s wardrobe lists a Chinese brocade chasuble (Freire 1904), while a 1534 inventory of João III’s possessions documents Chinese silk banners, including one bearing the Portuguese coat of arms in damask and two white taffeta banners embroidered with the Cross of Christ. Additionally, over 100 yards of gauze and four yards of satin from China are noted (Freire 1910). A 1528 inventory for Queen Catherine of Austria records approximately 35 yards of white Chinese silk (Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo 1528).
European portraiture further attests to Ming silk’s prestige. Archduke Albert VII of Austria (1559–1621), depicted in a 1600 portrait by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz (see Figure 4), wears a ruffled collar and black cloak lined with polychrome silk – likely Chinese – featuring floral patterns in white, red, gray, and ochre (Vergara 1999). The textile’s design closely resembles a late Ming badahun brocade (1575–1625) housed in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (see Figure 5). Albert VII likely acquired such silks through his familial ties to the Spanish/Portuguese crown (Teresa and Planella 2015).
Portrait of archduke albert VII of Austria.
Badahuan brocade, museum of fine arts, Boston.
These examples illuminate how Chinese silks, through their material and symbolic richness, mediated cultural exchange between East and West, embedding themselves into the ceremonial and sartorial practices of early modern European elites.
3 The Image of China Created by Exported Silk Products
The advent of the European Age of Exploration facilitated the rapid dissemination of Chinese silk textiles to the Western world, serving as a significant medium for cultural exchange between China and the West. This transmission was not merely an exchange of material goods but also a conveyance of cultural and aesthetic ideals. Chinese silk textiles not only met the aesthetic demands of Western society on a material level, with their craftsmanship gaining widespread international acclaim, but also fostered a deeper intellectual appreciation of Chinese culture. This, in turn, reshaped Western perceptions of China’s national identity, moving beyond the medieval portrayal of an exotic and enigmatic land to a more nuanced understanding.
3.1 The Role of Late Ming Silk Art in Global Dissemination
Late Ming silk played a pivotal role in global trade, deeply influencing Western silk industries and sparking a “China craze” in Europe. Silk, known for its exceptional quality and craftsmanship, with vibrant colors and intricate patterns, was used in both clothing and home decor, inspiring European artists and designers. The patterns and colors of Chinese silk ignited European creativity, fostering innovations in painting, sculpture, architecture, and garden design, and driving the evolution of European design styles.
Chinese silk’s high quality and craftsmanship made it a coveted item in the European market, profoundly impacting fashion, art, and design. Chinese silk was not only used for high-end clothing but also for home decoration, symbolizing the owner’s taste and social status. In 18th-century Europe, the “China craze” became a popular artistic style, with Chinese-inspired decor appearing in palaces and noble estates, stimulating innovations in various artistic fields.
The spread of Chinese silk significantly influenced Western silk industries, prompting technological advancements and industrial upgrades. Europe gradually developed its own silk industry by learning and mastering Chinese sericulture and weaving techniques, securing an essential position in the global trade network. Technological innovations facilitated the transition of the silk industry from traditional workshops to modern factories, enhancing production efficiency and fabric quality. This not only met the raw material demands of Mexico’s silk industry but also fostered mutual prosperity through complementary trade models. However, the influx of low-cost Eastern textiles into the European market posed significant challenges, driving the need for technological innovation and industrial upgrades.
It can be seen that the Silk Road and the Voyage of Discovery are common cross-cultural communication activities between China and the West, demonstrating the rich and complex interaction between Chinese and Western cultures, and promoting the understanding, respect and identification between different cultures.
3.2 Promoting China’s Image Abroad
During the Ming Dynasty, which coincided with the era of European maritime exploration, Chinese silk fabrics were extensively disseminated across the West through long-distance trade. Nobles and missionaries, driven by the maritime discoveries, incorporated these exotic goods into their societies, enhancing the allure and value of Chinese silk. Initially, the purchase of Chinese silk by Europeans represented an unconscious adaptation to Chinese styles. However, as the demand grew, they began to consciously commission silks incorporating their own cultural elements, a process reflecting active cultural adaptation. These bespoke silks, typically ordered by royal courts or religious institutions, often involved providing Chinese weavers with pattern samples that combined European motifs with traditional Chinese designs, thereby creating ceremonial fabrics that signified political or religious power.
The expansion of maritime trade granted European royalty and nobility the power to exploit colonial wealth and monopolize resources, leading to unprecedented levels of consumption. Through global trade, a vast array of non-European goods, including Chinese silk, became available, with the latter being particularly valued for its rarity and luxuriousness. The remarkable production capabilities of Chinese weavers ensured a continuous supply of this luxury to the West, intensifying Western engagement with Chinese culture. In the eyes of European elites, the unique texture and decorative aesthetics of Chinese silk embodied the honor and prestige associated with their explorations, thus fostering a cultural identity intertwined with their maritime achievements.
From the end of the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, with the expansion of the scope of cross-cultural communication, the symbols of power and honor expanded from the western elite society to other social classes, and silk gradually became a common fashion symbol in the Western society, thus forming a universal visual cultural identity of the image of China in the West.
4 Conclusions
In the late Ming Dynasty, with the decline of tributary trade and the change of maritime prohibition policy, a large number of Chinese silk was exported to overseas markets through Macao, becoming an important medium for cross-cultural communication. The Chinese silk fabrics collected in Western museums in the late Ming Dynasty are the epitome of this cross-regional material and cultural exchange. With its exquisite craftsmanship and unique artistic style, these silk fabrics satisfy the Western society’s pursuit of exoticism and luxury, and also deepen the Westerners’ understanding and appreciation of Chinese art, thus shaping China’s cultural image overseas. From the Portuguese controlling the sea route between Macau, Japan and Malacca to the Spanish selling Chinese silk to the Americas via the Manila sailing trade, these silks not only played a role in the development of textile technology in Japan, but also became an important cultural symbol among the upper classes of Europe and the Americas. The wide spread of Chinese silk not only meets the social and cultural needs of different regions, but also imperceptibly shapes China’s cultural image in the world. Today, there are still a large number of late Ming silk collections in overseas museums, which not only show the integration of traditional Chinese style and Western elements, but also highlight the key role of late Ming silk in cross-cultural communication. They are not only powerful evidence of the spread of Chinese and Western culture, but also provide a new perspective to understand the unique role of eastern material culture in Western culture, art and the modern world cultural system.
Firstly, late Ming Jiangnan silk textiles significantly impacted global trade and cultural exchange due to their artistic and technical excellence. As foreign trade routes through Macau and Manila expanded, these silks entered vast overseas markets, satisfying the cultural needs of different social strata and shaping China’s image in the cultural perspectives of Western societies.
Secondly, these interactions enriched global material culture and highlighted the artistic and innovative aspects of Chinese weaving techniques. Chinese weavers combined traditional patterns with Western elements to meet the aesthetic preferences of foreign markets. Textiles such as Zhuanghua, kesi, gold weaving, and Song brocade not only showcased advanced Ming weaving technology but also found wide applications in Western religious and secular contexts.
Furthermore, through maritime trade dissemination, nobles and missionaries integrated these exotic items into their societies, sparking admiration among Western commoners for religious and aristocratic overseas discovery endeavors. This integration also strengthened the recognition of Chinese art and cultural identity across various social strata.
In summary, the global dissemination of Chinese silk during the late Ming Dynasty played a crucial role in shaping China’s overseas image. The exquisite craftsmanship and artistic features of these silk fabrics not only fulfilled Western aesthetic demands but also facilitated a deeper cultural understanding and appreciation of Chinese art. Analysis of the overseas application and collection of Chinese export silk provides insights into the development and exchange of traditional Chinese handicrafts. These cultural artifacts serve as compelling evidence of Sino-Western cultural transmission, offering a new perspective on the unique role and status of Eastern material culture within Western art and the modern global cultural framework. Furthermore, this cross-cultural research transcends traditional boundaries of nation, ethnicity, politics, and geography, opening new avenues for the study of globalized art history.
About the author
Hui Ma, graduated from the Art Research Institute of Nanjing University of the Arts, holds a Masters degree in Art History, a PhD candidate in the School of History, Anthropology, Philosophy and Politics at Queen's University Belfast.
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