汉语作为外语写作焦虑的质性研究
-
吴 剑
吴剑：北京师范大学语言学及应用语言学专业博士，浙江大学国际教育学院助理研究员，研究兴趣主要为汉语作为第二语言的习得研究和汉语词汇语义学，主要论著有《来华预科留学生汉语写作策略研究》、《泰国学生汉语听力焦虑的探索性研究》、《初级水平外国留学生的汉语听力学习策略》等。
Jian Wu is an assistant researcher at International College, Zhejiang University. He received his Ph.D. (2014) in Chinese Linguistics from Beijing Normal University. His research focuses on the studies of acquisition of Chinese as a second language and Chinese lexical semantics. He has published more than 10 peer – reviewed papers, such as “A Research on Chinese Writing Strategies of Foreign Preparatory Students in China” (2012), “An empirical study on primary level foreign students’ Chinese listening learning strategies” (2018), etc.
and
刘 欣
刘欣：浙江大学国际教育学院汉语言专业本科生，研究兴趣主要为汉语作为第二语言的习得研究。
Xin Liu is an undergraduate student majoring in Chinese language. She is a Hungarian Chinese and her research interest is Chinese as a second language acquisition.
提要：
汉语作为外语写作时产生的焦虑是一种极其复杂的心理现象。我们在 Cheng（2004）研制的 “第二语言写作焦虑量表” 基础上结合汉语特点稍作修改制成 “汉语作为外语写作焦虑量表”，并根据量表进行了问卷调查，得到 204 份有效问卷。考虑写作焦虑本身的主观性、动态性、阶段性，本研究在 204 份有效问卷答题者中选定六名外国留学生做了深度访谈，同时对四名担任他们写作课的任课教师做了深度访谈。学生访谈提纲和教师访谈提纲参考了Horwitz et al (1986)、Macintyre and Gardner (1991)、Aida（1994）、Gregersen (2003)、Ewald (2007)的研究结论。通过对六名受访学生和四名受访教师的访谈，本文研究发现：（一）受访学生写作焦虑的主要影响因素是性格、写作策略、评价恐惧，其中关键因素是性格。（二）受访学生认为大量的写作训练是减少写作焦虑的最好办法，然而该解决方案受访教师没有提及并予以足够重视，可见教师与学生在降低汉语写作焦虑方法论上的侧重点有所不同。（三）受访教师认为华裔与非华裔在写作方法和写作效果上存在显著差异，然而在写作焦虑上并无显著差异，今后在汉语写作焦虑研究设计中没有必要设置华裔/非华裔这一身份变量了。（四）总体焦虑值高于 3 的受访学生会有明显的写作焦虑自我认知，反之，总体焦虑低于 3 的受访学生会有明显的无写作焦虑自我认知。（五）写作焦虑是否会随着学习时间增加而减少，受访学生有不同意见。持肯定意见的学生认为只要克服语言表达上的障碍，写作焦虑就会越学越少。持反对意见的学生则认为随着自身汉语水平的提高，自己对写作表达能力的要求也在不断加码，因此写作焦虑不会随着学习时间变长而发生太大变化。（六）过程写作教学法在降低汉语写作焦虑上行之有效，为大部分学生所接受，但仍需要根据实际教学情况做出一定的修改。
Abstract
The writing anxiety in Chinese as a foreign language is an extremely complex psychological phenomenon. Cheng (2004) devised an L2 writing anxiety named Second Language Writing Anxiety Inventory (SLWAI), which was the most commonly used measurement instrument of second language writing anxiety. Although Cheng’s SLWAI as a whole has been shown to be an instrument of satisfactory internal consistency reliability as well as concurrent and predictive validity, there seems to be plenty of room for further improvement if the SLWAI is to be used in Chinese as a foreign language writing anxiety. We revised some items in SLWAI for better compatibility with the miscellaneous events or behaviors that might be caused by Chinese characters. Hence, a scale named Chinese as a Foreign Language Writing Anxiety Scale (CFLWAS) was developed in order to accomplish this research. For each item of the CFLWAS, participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the statements on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Finally a total of 204 valid questionnaires were returned, all of which were entered data into SPSS version 23.0. Furthermore, considering the subjectivity, dynamics and hierarchy of writing anxiety, it is necessary to adopt a qualitative research method, such as individual case interview. These case interview questions are for students (4 items) and for teachers (8 items), with reference to Horwitz et al (1986), Macintyre and Gardner (1991), Aida (1994), Gregersen (2003) and Ewald (2007). After the case interview with six surveyed students and four Chinese writing teachers, the findings are as follows: (1) According to the students, the main factors that affect writing anxiety are: character (personality); the ability of language expression and writing skills; fear of evaluation; (2) Students also indicated that with a significant increase in the amount of writing exercises given, writing anxiety could be greatly reduced; (3) Differences in writing quality between heritage and non-heritage students were supported by the teachers. They indicated that heritage students’ Chinese was much closer to native Chinese than that of non-heritage students. No significant difference was found among heritage and non-heritage students in terms of writing anxiety. Teachers believed that a certain degree of writing anxiety would promote the quality of students’ writing. (4) Writing anxiety was defined and perceived differently by each teacher. Meanwhile, it could be reflected from the data analysis of 204 valid CFLWAS questionnaires: students with an overall anxiety value higher than 3 would have obvious writing anxiety self-cognition; conversely, students with an overall anxiety value lower than 3 would not have obvious writing anxiety self-cognition. (5) There were different opinions on the relationship of writing anxiety and learning duration. On the one hand, students with a positive opinion believed that as they overcame the obstacles in language expression, their writing anxiety would be gradually reduced, this view was identical with Macintyre and Gardner (1991). On the other hand, students who disagreed believed that their writing anxiety would not obviously change, because the requirements in writing skills were constantly increasing. (6) Process writing pedagogy proved to be effective in reducing writing anxiety. Modifications are still necessary according to the actual teaching situation in Chinese writing classrooms.
About the authors
吴剑：北京师范大学语言学及应用语言学专业博士，浙江大学国际教育学院助理研究员，研究兴趣主要为汉语作为第二语言的习得研究和汉语词汇语义学，主要论著有《来华预科留学生汉语写作策略研究》、《泰国学生汉语听力焦虑的探索性研究》、《初级水平外国留学生的汉语听力学习策略》等。
Jian Wu is an assistant researcher at International College, Zhejiang University. He received his Ph.D. (2014) in Chinese Linguistics from Beijing Normal University. His research focuses on the studies of acquisition of Chinese as a second language and Chinese lexical semantics. He has published more than 10 peer – reviewed papers, such as “A Research on Chinese Writing Strategies of Foreign Preparatory Students in China” (2012), “An empirical study on primary level foreign students’ Chinese listening learning strategies” (2018), etc.
刘欣：浙江大学国际教育学院汉语言专业本科生，研究兴趣主要为汉语作为第二语言的习得研究。
Xin Liu is an undergraduate student majoring in Chinese language. She is a Hungarian Chinese and her research interest is Chinese as a second language acquisition.
致谢
本文曾在 “不同区域的汉语国际传播研究” 研讨会暨第 15 届对外汉语国际学术研讨会上宣读，并在其他一些场合进行过讨论，感谢王建勤、彭利贞、钱旭菁、王尧美、刘颖、陈雯等老师对本文的意见。
附录
访谈提纲
一、学生访谈提纲
你学习汉语有多长时间了？你觉得自己的汉语水平如何？你一般写作成绩在多少分左右？
用汉语写作是否会让你感到焦虑？
如会，请你详细描述什么让你感到焦虑（具体原因是什么）？这种焦虑如何影响到你的写作（对你的写作具有积极作用或消极作用）？
如不会，请你详细解释用汉语写作为什么会让你自信。
你同意 “我的汉语水平越高，我对汉语写作的焦虑就会越低” 这种说法吗？关于此，你的个人经验是什么？
你觉得教师怎么能够帮助学生减少这种对汉语写作的焦虑感？（评价过程写作教学）
二、教师访谈提纲
您有几年的对外汉语教学经验？几年的写作教学经验？
作为一位对外汉语教师您怎么评价一篇学生作文？有哪些标准？批改文章时您主要会看重哪些语言表达因素？
华裔学生在写作上的表现与非华裔学生相比是否有差异？
您在汉语写作教学方面采用的是什么样的方法？您有什么心得体会？
您觉得学生们对写作是否焦虑？您对此有什么经验？
您是否能分辨出对写作焦虑的学生和对写作不焦虑的学生之间的区别？他们在课堂表现和写作质量上有那些区别？
您怎么看待 “焦虑”？对写作结果会有什么影响？焦虑促进还是导致学生们能变得更好？（影响是积极的还是消极的）
要是您觉得写作焦虑的影响是消极的，为了降低焦虑您是否会采取教学方法？（会/不会）您有什么经验？
参考文献
Ding, Anqi & Sina Wu (丁安琪、吴思娜). 2011. Hanyu zuowei di’er yuyan xuexizhe shizheng yanjiu. Beijing: World Book Publishing Company. [《汉语作为第二语言学习者实证研究》。北京:世界图书出版公司。]Search in Google Scholar
Kong, Xiangrong (孔祥荣). 2006. Chuji shuiping liuxuesheng hanyu tingli ketang jiaolü jiqi yingdui fangshi yanjiu. Master thesis of Beijing Language and Culture University. [《初级水平留学生汉语听力课堂焦虑及其应对方式研究》。北京语言大学硕士学位论文。]Search in Google Scholar
Guo, Yan & Xiaoqing Qin (郭燕、秦晓晴). 2009. Daxuesheng waiyu xiezuo jiaolü diaocha ji dui xiezuo jiaoxue de qishi [An Investigation of College Students’ Foreign Language Writing Anxiety and Its Enlightenment to Writing Teaching]. Fengkuang Yingyu [Crazy English] 4. 28–32. [大学生外语写作焦虑调查及对写作教学的启示。《疯狂英语》第 4 期，28–32 页。]Search in Google Scholar
Guo, Yan & Xiaoqing Qin (郭燕、秦晓晴). 2010. Zhongguo fei yingyu zhuanye daxuesheng de waiyu xiezuo jiaolü ceshi baogao ji qi dui xiezuo jiaoxue de qishi [Foreign Language Writing Anxiety Test Report of Chinese Non-English Majors and Its Enlightenment to Writing Teaching]. Waiyu jie [Foreign Language World] 2. 54–62. [中国非英语专业大学生的外语写作焦虑测试报告及其对写作教学的启示。《外语界》第 2 期， 54–62 页。]Search in Google Scholar
Kou, Qinghua (寇清华). 2008. Menggu guo xuesheng hanyu yuedu jiaolü gan yanjiu. Master thesis of Shandong University. [《蒙古国学生汉语阅读焦虑感研究》。山东大学硕士学位论文。]Search in Google Scholar
Li, Hang & Rude Liu (李航、刘儒德). 2013. Daxuesheng waiyu xiezuo jiaolü yu xiezuo ziwo xiaoneng gan de guanxi ji qi dui xiezuo chengji de yuce [The Relationship between College Students’ Foreign Language Writing Anxiety and Writing Self-Efficacy and Their Prediction of Writing Achievements]. Waiyu yanjiu [Foreign language research] 2. 48–54. [大学生外语写作焦虑与写作自我效能感的关系及其对写作成绩的预测。《外语研究》第 2 期， 48–54页。]Search in Google Scholar
Qian, Xujing (钱旭菁). 1999. Waiguo Liuxuesheng xuexi hanyu shi de jiaolü [Anxiety of foreign students studying Chinese]. Yuyan jiaoxue yu yanjiu [Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies] 2. 144–154. [外国留学生学习汉语时的焦虑。《语言教学与研究》第 2 期，144–154 页。]Search in Google Scholar
Yuan, Shu (袁舒). 2016. Lai Hua yuke liuxuesheng hanyu xiezuo jiaolü wenti shizheng yanjiu. Master thesis of Shandong University. [《来华预科留学生汉语写作焦虑问题实证研究》。山东大学硕士学位论文。]Search in Google Scholar
Zhang, Li (张莉). 2002. Liuxuesheng hanyu yuedu jiaolü gan yanjiu. Yuyan wenzi yingyong [Applied Linguistics] 4. 77–83. [留学生汉语阅读焦虑感研究。《语言文字应用》第 4 期，77–83 页。]Search in Google Scholar
Zhang, Li andBiao Wang (张莉、王飙). 2002. Liuxuesheng hanyu jiaolü gan yu chengji xiangguan fenxi ji jiaoxue duice[Correlation Analysis and Teaching Countermeasures of Chinese Students’ Anxiety and Achievements]. Yuyan jiaoxue yu yanjiu [Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies] 1. 36–42. [留学生汉语焦虑感与成绩相关分析及教学对策。《语言教学与研究》第 1 期，36–42 页。]Search in Google Scholar
Aida, Y. 1994. Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope’s Construct of Foreign Language Anxiety: The Case of Students of Japanese. Modern Language Journal 78(2). 155–168.10.1111/j.1540-4781.1994.tb02026.xSearch in Google Scholar
Bloom, L. Z. 1980. The composing processes of anxious and non-anxious writers: A naturalistic study. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the conference on College Composition and Communication (31st, Washington, DC, March 13-15), ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 185559.Search in Google Scholar
Bayat, N. 2014. The effect of the process writing approach on writing success and anxiety. Educational Sciences Theory & Practice 14(3). 1133–1141.10.12738/estp.2014.3.1720Search in Google Scholar
Busch, M. 1993. Using likert scales in L2 research. A researcher comments. TESOL Quarterly 27(4). 733–736.10.2307/3587408Search in Google Scholar
Cheng, Y. S. 2002. Factors associated with foreign language writing anxiety. Foreign Language Annals 35(6). 647–656.10.1111/j.1944-9720.2002.tb01903.xSearch in Google Scholar
Cheng, Y. S. 2004. A measure of second language writing anxiety: Scale development and preliminary validation. Journal of Second Language Writing. 13(4). 313–335.10.1016/j.jslw.2004.07.001Search in Google Scholar
Daly, J. A. 1978. Writing apprehension and writing competency. Journal of Educational Research 72(1). 10–14.10.1080/00220671.1978.10885110Search in Google Scholar
Daly, J. A. & Miller, M. D. 1975. The empirical development of an instrument to measure writing apprehension. Research in the Teaching of English 9(3). 242–249.10.1037/t73755-000Search in Google Scholar
Ewald, J. D. 2007. Foreign language learning anxiety in upper‐level classes: Involving students as researchers. Foreign Language Annals 40(1). 122–142.10.1111/j.1944-9720.2007.tb02857.xSearch in Google Scholar
Faigley, L., J. A. Daly & S. P. Witte. 1981. The role of writing apprehension in writing performance and competence. Journal of Educational Research 75(1). 16–21.10.1080/00220671.1981.10885348Search in Google Scholar
Fishman, Joshua A. 2001. 300-plus years of heritage language education in the United States. In J. K. Peyton, D. A. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (eds.), Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource, 81–97. Washington, DC & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems.Search in Google Scholar
Gregersen, T. S. 2003. To err is human: A reminder to teachers of language‐anxious students. Foreign Language Annals 36(1). 25–32.10.1111/j.1944-9720.2003.tb01929.xSearch in Google Scholar
Horwitz, E. K. 1988. The beliefs about language learning of beginning university foreign language students. Modern Language Journal 2(3). 283–294.10.1111/j.1540-4781.1988.tb04190.xSearch in Google Scholar
Horwitz, E. K. Horwitz, M. B. & Cope, J. 1986. Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern Language Journal 70(2). 125–132.10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.xSearch in Google Scholar
Likert, R. 1932. A technique for the measurement of attitude scales. Archives of Psychology 140(22). 1–55.Search in Google Scholar
Macintyre, P. D. & R. C. Gardner. 1991. Language anxiety: Its relationship to other anxieties and to processing in native and second languages. Language Learning 41(4). 513–534.10.1111/j.1467-1770.1991.tb00691.xSearch in Google Scholar
Marteau, T. M. andH. Bekker. 1992. The development of a six-item short-form of the state scale of the spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). British Journal of Clinical Psychology 31(3). 301–306.10.1111/j.2044-8260.1992.tb00997.xSearch in Google Scholar
McKain, T. L. 1991. Cognitive, affective, and behavioral factors in writing anxiety, 22–25. Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C.Search in Google Scholar
Martinez, C. T. N. Kock andJ. Cass. 2011. Pain and pleasure in short essay writing: factors predicting university students’ writing anxiety and writing self‐efficacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 54(5). 351–360.10.1598/JAAL.54.5.5Search in Google Scholar
Pajares, F. & G. Valiante. 1997. Influence of self-efficacy on elementary students’ writing. Journal of Educational Research. 90(6). 353–360.10.1080/00220671.1997.10544593Search in Google Scholar
Schweikermarra, K. E. & W. T. Marra. 2000. Investigating the effects of prewriting activities on writing performance and anxiety of at-risk students. Reading Psychology 21(2). 99–114.10.1080/02702710050084437Search in Google Scholar
Trang, Tran Thi Thu. 2012. A review of Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’s theory of foreign language anxiety and the challenges to the theory. English Language Teaching 5. 69–75.10.5539/elt.v5n1p69Search in Google Scholar
Trang, Tran Thi Thu, Richard B. Baldauf Jr & Karen Moni. 2013. Foreign language anxiety: Understanding its status and insiders’ awareness and attitudes. TESOL Quarterly 47. 216–43.10.1002/tesq.85Search in Google Scholar
Valdés, G. 2001. Heritage language students: Profiles and possibilities. In J. K. Peyton, D. A. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (eds.), Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource, 37–77. Washington, DC & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems.Search in Google Scholar
Xiao, Y. & K. F. Wong 2014. Exploring heritage language anxiety: A study of chinese heritage language learners. Modern Language Journal 98(2). 589–611.10.1111/modl.12085Search in Google Scholar
© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Papers in English
- Chinese L2 acquisition of sense relatedness for shàng “to go up”
- Dialectics versus polemics in Chinese rhetoric: A study of indirection in Chinese and Chinese ESL argumentative writing as compared with English argumentative writing
- Perceptual cue weighting in L1 and L2 Chinese: An investigation of aspiration and frication in Chinese obstruents by Danish learners
- Papers in Chinese
- 国际汉语教材中的中国人物性别角色
- 汉语作为外语写作焦虑的质性研究
- 人文社會科學語料庫與學術搭配詞檢索系統之建置與專業華語教學
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Papers in English
- Chinese L2 acquisition of sense relatedness for shàng “to go up”
- Dialectics versus polemics in Chinese rhetoric: A study of indirection in Chinese and Chinese ESL argumentative writing as compared with English argumentative writing
- Perceptual cue weighting in L1 and L2 Chinese: An investigation of aspiration and frication in Chinese obstruents by Danish learners
- Papers in Chinese
- 国际汉语教材中的中国人物性别角色
- 汉语作为外语写作焦虑的质性研究
- 人文社會科學語料庫與學術搭配詞檢索系統之建置與專業華語教學
