2 Head and body movementsThe orientations and trajectories of three-dimensional head and body move-ments are very complex. In this chapter, first, the anatomic possibilities of head and body motions are described (2.1). Then, an overview is given of those which have been described in sign language research (2.2). Finally, the chapter exam-ines the head and body movements that have been identified for ÖGS by Deaf annotators (2.3).2.1 Motions of the head and body This section introduces the realm of possibilities for head and body movements in a general sense11. Head motions are explored first (2.1.1), followed by body (2.1.2) and then shoulder movements (2.1.3).2.1.1 Motions of the head Turns, shakes, nods and tilts are represented in Figure 2.1 as the basic movement possibilities of the head. Anatomically, these possibilities constitute rotation, thrusting (pushing/sliding), and a combination of both.11 While this section aims to provide a comprehensive background in these movements, read-ers who do not have an interest in the mechanical and anatomical aspects of these movements may wish to proceed to section 2.2, which focuses more intently on their linguistic uses.https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501507779-035
12 Head and body movementsFigure 2.1 Possible head movementsRotation movements: First, the head can rotate around one of the three axes. Such rotations occur at the joint between the cervical vertebrae and in the atlan-to-occipital joint (Richmond & Vidal 1988: 3–5; Schünke et al. 2006: 98). (a) Around the frontal axis (and in the sagittal plane) the head can be bent to the chest, brought to the neutral position, or bent toward the back resulting in the three movements ‘flexion,’ ‘extension’ and ‘hyperextension’ (McGinnis 2005: 164–165). The resulting single movement is labeled ‘head nod (downward or upward).’ If the movement is repeated it is referred to as ‘head nods.’ If the up or down movement is held for a while, the position of the head is defined as ‘chin down’ or ‘chin up,’ using ‘chin’ as a synecdoche for ‘head.’ (b) Around the sagittal axis (in the frontal plane), the head can be bent toward the shoulder, resulting in a lateral flexion to the right or to the left (McGinnis 2005: 166). In this book these movements are referred to as ‘tilting the head side-ward.’ If the side-to-side movements are repeated, the head movement is labeled ‘head tilts (sideward).’(c) Around the vertical axis in the transverse plane the head can also be rotated, resulting in a right or left head turn (Saladin 2007: 237). If the right and left turning movement is performed contiguously and repeated, the term used is ‘headshakes.’Pushing movements: The second movement possibility of the head is to push it in one direction on one of the three axes. (a) A forward movement along the sagittal axis, parallel to the frontal plane, is possible due to the hyperextension of the cervical spine. To be exact, the sub-
Motions of the head and body 13occipital, posterior cervical, upper trapezius and splenius capitis muscles con-tract (and shorten), so that the head undergoes a slight extension movement that allows the eye gaze to ‘move’ forward (Simons et al. 1999: 262). Colloquially, holding the head constantly in this forward position is known as ‘forward head posture,’ ‘reading neck,’ or ‘scholar’s neck.’ This movement is labeled ‘position-ing the head forward’ in this book. If it is performed several times, this is called ‘head forward movements.’(b) In contrast, bending the cervical spine backwards results in a superior head movement along the sagittal axis (Saladin 2007: 236),12 defined as ‘position-ing the head backward.’(c) Also, the head can slide to the side along the frontal axis, parallel to the sagittal plane (lateral excursion) (Saladin 2007: 235–236) or can even be moved upward along the median axis, parallel to the transverse plane, resulting in lengthening of the neck (cf. Campbell 2005: 350). As neither of these head posi-tions occurs in my ÖGS data, these two positions are not analyzed any further.Combination of movements: The third movement possibility is a combination of two rotation motions or a combination of rotation and pushing. For instance, rotation movements to the right and left around the vertical axis combined with flexion and extension rotations around the frontal axis result in an alpha-shaped movement of the head (i.e. like the Greek letter alpha α). A combination of a flexion and extension around the frontal axis with a forward and back movement results in a circling rotation of the chin along the saggital axis. Both movements are identified as elements in ÖGS.2.1.2 Motions of the body The spinal column can move in all three planes, often accompanied by hip or pelvic movements when the whole trunk is in motion. Hence, the mobility of the upper part of the body is caused by the flexibility of the spine and rotation move-ment at the hip joints.(a) Bending the upper part of the body forward (around the frontal axis, in the sagittal plane) is labeled ‘flexion,’ and moving the body back from flexion is ‘extension’ (Dimon 2008: 85). In this book, these movements are labeled ‘body lean forward’ and ‘body lean backward.’ Ongoing forward movements are referred to as ‘body leans forward.’ 12 Saladin (2007: 236) describes the forward and backward movement of the head as protrac-tion and retraction of the mandible.
14 Head and body movements(b) The upper part of the body can also bend towards one side (along the frontal plane, around the sagittal axis). This is labeled ‘lateral flexion’ (Dimon 2008: 85). In this book bending the body to one side and holding this position is labeled ‘body lean sideward.’ Repeated side-to-side bending movements are ‘body sways.’ (c) Furthermore, the upper body can be rotated (around a vertical axis in the transverse plane) due to the flexibility of the spine. The results are rotations to the left or right (Dimon 2008: 85). In the current research this movement is labeled ‘body turn.’The myriad movements of the trunk are illustrated in Figure 2.2.Figure 2.2 Possible movements of the trunkMovements in all three planes can also be achieved by moving the entire body or other parts of it. This is implemented by steps, weight shift, and even hip shift. Movements of the entire body that occur in ÖGS are illustrated in Figure 2.3. Lateral extension can be achieved by a step sideways, weight shift, or even hip shift as shown in the figure. Forward/backward extension can be achieved by stepping forward/backward.Figure 2.3 Lateral extension achieved by sideward movements
Head and body movements in sign language research 152.1.3 Motions of the shoulders Shoulders can be moved in various directions, and are the most moveable joints due to their flexibility and contributive muscles. There are two possibilities for shoulder motions: first, they can be moved in different directions, and second, they can be rotated. The variety of such scapular possibilities is anatomically explained as follows: retraction is the backward movement of one or both shoul-ders along the sagittal axis by moving the shoulder joint(s) in a posterior direc-tion; protraction is the forward (anterior) movement of the shoulder joints along the sagittal axis; elevation is the raising of the shoulders (shrugging); while depression is the subsequent lowering. One or both shoulders can be rotated, resulting in (a) outward medial rotation, (b) inward medial rotation, or (c) a cir-cumduction movement, i.e. forward or backward together with the arms (Palas-tanga et al. 2006: 146–151). These varieties are illustrated in Figure 2.4.Figure 2.4 Possible shoulder movementsIn this book, raising/elevation is the main language-relevant movement of the shoulders, and may occur one or several times. This is labeled ‘shoulders up’ and ‘upward movements of the shoulders.’ Another relevant movement is ‘shoulders forward.’2.2 Head and body movements in sign language research In various sign languages, the articulator ‘head’ has been investigated primarily in the course of describing linguistic functions that the head is one of the means of encoding. The most frequently mentioned movements are ‘headshakes’ con-veying a negation function (5.1), different head positions coding interrogativity (6.1), and head nods that are used as means of coding assertion, confirmation, aspect, phrasal boundary marking and so forth (5.2). A few studies also focus on the body as articulator and describe its relative functions (4.1).
16 Head and body movementsWith regard to head and body movements in the ‘layering of nonmanuals’, Liddell (1977, 1978) and Baker & Padden (1978) are some of the first researchers to clearly describe several distinctive such movements in American Sign Language (ASL). Wilbur (2000: 226–227) offers an overview of head and body movements (among other nonmanuals) in ASL, with boundary and domain marking func-tions. These nonmanual markers are head tilt, head nod(s), headshake(s), head thrust, body shifting, and body leans (forward, backward, sideward, and imple-mented as a step forward or backward in the standing position; see also Wilbur & Patschke 1998). Further studies on these head or body markers show that for some, there are more possible instantiations. Watson (2010), for example, shows that ASL has various headshakes that differ in form and meaning.Possible head and body movements have also been listed in the course of descriptions of particular sign languages. For instance, Johnston & Schembri (2007: 97 and xiv) list various head and body movements in their description of Australian Sign Language (Auslan). These include headshakes, head nod(s), head turn to the left or right, head tilt rightward, leftward, forward or backward, and moving the head forward, backward or sideward. For the body, they comprise leans along the different axes, namely, leaning forward, backward, and sideward. Shrugging, moving the shoulders forward or backward, and turning them to the left or right, are also mentioned.Some research has been done on individual sign languages with a specific focus on head or body movements: Ichida (2004) describes nods, headshakes, head thrusts, and changes in head position in Japanese Sign Language (JSL). Wilbur & Patschke (1998) for ASL and Kooij et al. (2006) for the Sign Language of the Netherlands (NGT) describe various functions of body leans. In both lan-guages, leans are used for prosodic, lexical, semantic, and pragmatic purposes. Thus, in both languages they can indicate stress and express involvement/non-in-volvement, inclusion/exclusion, and affirmation/denial. The latter authors even take into consideration the influence of the interactive communication and describe some of the body leans from a pragmatic point of view. Boyes Braem (1999) observes ‘body sways’ in Swiss German Sign Language (DSGS) narratives. She reports that a single body sway to one direction constitutes a prosodic unit. Continuous side-to-side movements of the body indicate a discourse unit. Body shifts also have been implicated in ‘constructed actions’ and ‘embodiment,’ as explained by Metzger (1995) for ASL; Quinto-Pozos et al. (2009) on constructed actions in ASL, British Sign Language (BSL), and Mexican Sign Language (LSM); and Cormier & Smith (2011) as well as Cormier, Smith & Sevcikova (in press), who show how to define and annotate these phenomena.
Head and body movements in Austrian Sign Language (ÖGS) 17The segmentation or rhythmic function of head and body movements13 is not investigated herein, but it is mentioned in section 9.3, and for the sake of completeness, some research on these functions is noted. Sze (2004), among others, investigates the segmentation function of head movements in Hong Kong Sign Language (HKSL), while Fenlon (2010) examines segmentation cues in BSL. Similarly, Nespor & Sandler (1999) and Dachkovsky & Sandler (2009) report that changes of nonmanual articulators including the head and body indicate pro-sodic boundaries in Israeli Sign Language (ISL), and mention the possible rhyth-mic function of these cues.2.3 Head and body movements in Austrian Sign Language (ÖGS)The different functions indicated by head and body movements have also been observed for ÖGS (cf. each literature overview in chapters 4 to 8). The following sections list all head (2.3.1), body (2.3.2) and shoulder (2.3.3) movements and posi-tions identified by the Deaf annotators.2.3.1 Head movements in ÖGS Moving and holding the head ‘up’ or ‘down’ is used for linguistic purposes in ÖGS. These positions are labeled ‘chin up’ and ‘chin down.’ In some instances the upward position is held in an intensified way and perceived as distinctive compared to the regular marker ‘chin up.’ This is annotated as ‘chin up-large.’ A combination of up-and-down or down-and-up movement is identified as a ‘head nod,’ or ‘nods’ if it is ongoing (5.2). One further type is ongoing head movements which tend to be small nods or head-forward motions performed in a trembling way; these provide modality meaning (7.3.2). 13 Since October 2011 a project on ‘Segmentation and Structuring of Austrian Sign Language texts’ has been implemented. This project is financed by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF), led by Prof. Franz Dotter, head of the Centre for Sign Language and Deaf Communication (ZGH) of Klagenfurt University, and conducted by the author of this book. The focus in this project is on head and body movements (and their change) functioning as segmentation and/or structuring cues. A follow-up project on the interplay of clause-like units and nonmanuals in ÖGS has been submitted by the author of the book.
18 Head and body movementsFigure 2.5 Up/down movements of the head 14Another identified movement is the ‘head turn.’ The annotators juxtaposed this element with the unmarked form (no head turn) or the opposite turning move-ment, that is, ‘head turn to the other side.’ If the movement to one side is produced in an intensified way and this is perceived as meaningful by the annotators, it is annotated as ‘head turn-large.’ Ongoing head turn movements (headshakes) are also identified as distinctive language elements. The annotators noted various forms of shaking movements to which they allocated different functions. The headshakes described in this book are fast and slow ones functioning as nega-tors (5.1.2); small, fast ones co-occurring with signs like rather (5.1.4); fast, non-tensed headshakes occurring in content questions (6.2.3.2); small, slow and ten-tative headshakes displaying a non-assertive modality marker (7.3.3); and a fast single headshake to underline the speed of an action.Figure 2.6 Sideward movements of the head14 Both there-is and exist are used herein as translations of the German ID-gloss da.
Head and body movements in Austrian Sign Language (ÖGS) 19A further identified movement is ‘tilting the head sideward.’ A head tilt side-ward can be contrasted with an unmarked form or the opposite tilting movement (4.3.3). Also, ongoing side-to-side tilting movements produced at low or high speed have been identified. Tilting movements which cover several signs tend to be performed more slowly (and less uniformly) while tilting movements that only accompany one sign or stand on their own (i.e. occur together with ‘palm up,’ a rest position, or the final configuration of the preceding sign) are performed in a faster, more regular way (7.2.2).Figure 2.7 Tilting movements of the headMoving the head forward or backward is a further possibility. The annotators identified a stronger forward positioning of the head (6.2.2, 6.3, 8.3.1), along with various ongoing forward movements. They pinpointed intensive forward move-ments, each co-occurring with a lexical item. These can be exploited for listing (4.4) or displaying the first of the two existing forms of the convinced-assertive marker, the second of which uses fast and small forward movements in one of its phonetic implementations (7.3.2).
20 Head and body movementsFigure 2.8 Head forward/backward positions/movementsIn addition, some special head movements were recognized, namely ongoing rotations forward and upward, side-to-side movements performed in an alpha-shaped pattern, and forward movements which alternate between the right and left side. The first rotation movement serves as a further phonetic variation of the convinced-assertive modality marker (7.3.2), while the second and third show the regular and consistent aspect of walking movements, implemented by different Deaf individuals (see Figure 2.9).Figure 2.9 Special forms of head movements
Head and body movements in Austrian Sign Language (ÖGS) 212.3.2 Body movements in ÖGS Movements of part or the whole of the body have also been perceived as lan-guage-relevant. Forward or backward movements of the upper body are iden-tified as ‘body leans forward and backward’ (4.3.2) as well as ongoing ‘body leans forward.’ The latter occur in listings and can alternate or co-occur with head forward movements (4.4). This is illustrated in the first picture sequence of Figure 2.10.Rotations of the upper body are ‘body turns,’ illustrated in the second sequence. Because this movement as well as ‘head turn’ and ‘gaze directed side-ward’ are primarily used for reference purposes (4.1 and 4.2), the direction to the side is added in the annotations to provide information about the established reference space.Figure 2.10 Forward and turn movements of the body 15Moving the upper or whole body along the frontal plane also results in some language-relevant elements. These include ‘body leans sideward,’ ‘shifting of weight,’ and ‘step sideward’16 (4.3.3.3 and 7.3.4). A particular side movement is juxtaposed with an unmarked body position, or a movement to the opposite side. Ongoing movements from side to side are ‘body sways;’ that is, the upper body sways or ‘weight shifts’ from side to side (7.3.4).15 Figure 2.10 includes an additional upward and downward head positioning together with glances upward and downward. Schalber (2006: 140–141) observed that height can be indicated by both gaze direction and chin position in ÖGS. If the head position is used for indicating a polar or content interrogative, the addressee height is only indicated by gaze or by the head marker being performed in an intensified way.16 Body leans, shifting of weight, and steps sideward were annotated in one tier in ELAN as these movements either exclude each other or occur together (e.g. body lean to the right goes together with weight shift to the right). Whether the upper or whole body is moved depends on various factors, e.g. the signer’s position (sitting or standing), the distance of the audience, and the language style of the signer. In chapter 4, spatial cues are listed which can vary in their use (including head and body movements), the variation of which needs further investigation.
22 Head and body movementsFigure 2.11 Sideward movements of the body2.3.3 Shoulder movements in ÖGSMoving one or both shoulders upward (once or several times in an equal or alter-nating way), moving both forward, and straightening the body are all identified as language-relevant in ÖGS. The function of these is only partly ascertained. What is clear is that raising the shoulders can convey the meaning of ‘lack of knowledge;’ shrugging can possess the same meaning, or that of doing an activity in a continuous way (7.2.2 and 6.2.3.2). Moving the shoulders forward can also co-occur in conditional clauses (8.3.1). Straightening the body while performing signs is one of the segmentation cues that have been mentioned by annotators conducting a segmentation task.17 These movements are illustrated in Figure 2.12.17 This task is part of the project ‘Segmentation and Structuring of ÖGS-texts’ (see sections 1.2 and 2.2).
Conclusion 23Figure 2.12 Shoulder positions and movements; body straightening2.4 ConclusionIn sum, the head and body movements and positions that were identified by the various Deaf annotators up to now are summarized in Table 2.1. Their functional uses are described in detail in chapters 4 to 8.
24 Head and body movementsTable 2.1 Head, body, and shoulder movementsHead movements and positionsposition/movementsmovement direction additional characteris-tics (speed, size, etc.)Functions associated with the positions/movementspositionchin upcontent interrogativitychin uplarge movementintensificationchin downpolar interrogativity, conditionality, additional component of signs such as existforwardpolar interrogativity, con-ditionality, exclamationforwardlarge movementbackward(special) interrogativity, denial, additional com-ponent of signs such as like-notsidewardexpressing alternatives, modality (possibility)nod(s)upwardassertive answerdownwardregular movementassertion, confirmation, positive contrastslow movementassertion, confirmation,fast, small movements epistemic modality (positive-assertive)in a trembling wayepistemic modality (timitive)shake(s)sidewardregular movementsnegation, negative contrastslow movementsnegationfast, small movements negation, additional component of the signs r ather and any wayslow, small, tentative movementsepistemic modality (non-assertive)single fast movementunderline the realized speed of an actionfast, non-tensed movements frequently co-occurring in content questionsmovementsforwardlisting, emphasizing, epis-temic modality (assertive)sidewardexpressing may-be
Conclusion 25Body movements and positionsposition/movementsmovement directionFunctions associated with the positions/movementspositionforwardaffirmationbackwarddenialsideward lean or stepexpressing alternativessideward turnreferencemovementsforwardlisting, emphasizingsideward swaysepistemic modality (specula-tive), rhythmical structuring, (human) motionweight shifting sidewardrhythmical structuringShoulder movements and positions identified by Deaf annotatorsposition/movementsmovement directionFunctions associated with the positions/movementspositionforwardconditionalitymovementsupward of one/both shoulders associated with lack of knowledgefast, small movementsassociated with knowledge, (human) motionsidewardlisting, emphasizingsidewardepistemic modality (speculative)
Andrea LacknerSearch for this author in:
