Tamakazura and the Unfinished Self: A Narratological Study of Character Formation, Agency, and Liminality in The Tale of Genji
Abstract
In its lengthy form, the ancient Japanese court novel The Tale of Genji (Genji monogatari 源氏物語) famously features more than 400 characters in a realistically constructed setting that reflects the court life and the Heian aristocracy. Although the main narrative centers around the Shining Prince Genji’s adventures and intricate love affairs, it also gives place to interconnected side stories, shifting the main focus from Genji to the female characters. In one of these stories, Yūgao’s daughter, Tamakazura, appears as the heroine of ten consecutive chapters. Tamakazura’s character arc illustrates how her relationship with Genji and others forms a network of dialogic interactions, in which she is shaped, perceived, and defined. This article examines the foundations of Tamakazura’s character formation and growth by drawing on Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of exotopy (‘outsidedness’) and unfinished character through her internal monologues, self-composed poems, and interaction with other characters. In addition, James Phelan and Peter Rabinowitz’s tripartite character model—comprising a mimetic (realistic), synthetic (artificial), and thematic (conceptual) dimension— is applied to analyze Tamakazura’s function within The Tale of Genji. Ultimately, the article raises questions about agency and liminal character features by highlighting how fixed narrative roles are challenged in the Ten Tamakazura Chapters (Tamakazura jūjō 玉鬘十帖).
“How can a human being enter into a narrative world
and not disrupt the distribution of attention?”[1]
Alex Woloch, The One Vs. The Many
1 Introduction
Murasaki Shikibu’s 紫式部 (c. 973–c. 1014)[2] canonical masterpiece, The Tale of Genji (Genji monogatari 源氏物語, early 11th c.), is considered to be one of the most popular classics of Japanese literature today. The tale contains numerous characters and various side-stories within its fifty-four chapters, which are mainly centered around Hikaru Genji 光源氏 (“Shining Genji”), also known as the Shining Prince. Despite the myriad characters, only a few maintain a distinct voice throughout the narrative. As a character possessing one of those voices, Tamakazura 玉鬘 captures the interest of both the protagonist and the reader. She becomes a central figure in Chapters 22 to 31, which are often referred to as the Ten Tamakazura Chapters (Tamakazura jūjō 玉鬘十帖).[3] The sequence starts with Tamakazura’s quest to find her father in the capital and ends with her giving birth to her first son in the Makibashira 真木柱 (“The Handsome Pillar”) chapter. Tamakazura’s narrative journey forms a bridge between the center and the periphery as her character exceptionally belongs to both the Heian aristocracy’s dazzling cultural sphere and the mundane world of the provinces.
Written in the early eleventh century in Japan, The Tale of Genji still captures the interest of scholars even after a thousand years since its completion. The Tamakazura Chapters, however, rarely receive attention in Genji studies from Europe. Although American scholars such as H. Richard Okada and Haruo Shirane have given careful attention to the Tamakazura Chapters, only Edith Sarra and Norma Field have shown particular interest in Tamakazura’s character. Therefore, in an attempt to fill this gap in English scholarship on the Genji, this paper unravels the unique features of Tamakazura’s character formation and analyzes her narrative and thematic roles within the story.
Moreover, this article adopts a narratological approach to examine character formation by drawing from Mikhail Bakhtin’s[4] understanding of literary character and James Phelan and Peter Rabinowitz’s[5] character model. The model comprises three interrelated dimensions: the mimetic (realistic: the character as a living person), the synthetic (artificial: the character as a constructed artifact), and the thematic (conceptual: the character as a tool for ideas or values). Combined with Bakhtinian theory, Phelan and Rabinowitz’s approach allows tracing structural and thematic implications of character transformation to rethink character as a dynamic and unfinished entity within the Genji. Correspondingly, it illuminates Tamakazura’s character agency and narrative liminality by demonstrating how her identity emerges relationally through the perceptions and positions of other characters. As a result, the article aims to deepen the understanding of character formation in The Tale of Genji through close readings of key episodes in the Tamakazura Chapters.[6]
2 The Notion of Literary Character
Before setting out to analyze Tamakazura’s character formation, a definition of ‘character’ needs to be sketched within the scope of this article. While the word character can refer to a person in a literary work, it also means “appearance” or “personality,” which pertains to an individual’s moral values or personal traits. Regardless, the term ‘character,’ as it is used in this article, follows the definition given in the Routledge Dictionary of Literary Terms, explaining character as “the fictional representation of a person, which is likely to change, both as a presence in literature and as an object of critical attention, much as it changes in society.”[7] The Routledge Dictionary also suggests that “character” might be “the most mimetic term in critical vocabulary, and hence one of the most difficult to contain within the fictional environment,” which is why “the representation of persons in literature is a simultaneous process of their humanization and their dehumanization.”[8] Although the characters mirror humans in their creation, they are, first and foremost, not real persons, and this emphasizes their contradictory nature. In Western literary theory, debates on literary characters have often divided structuralist approaches, which treat characters primarily as textual or functional constructs, from the rhetorical and ethical critics, who emphasize their psychological depth and human-like qualities. According to Mieke Bal, judging literary characters like “real, modern, psychologically complex people” has had “nefarious effects” on literary studies. The idea that fictional characters exist only as textual constructs —“paper people,” as Bal phrases it—becomes strikingly tangible when Proust’s “I” narrator “reduces” the character to “a series of photographs.”[9] Yet it can also be said that some characters “take concrete shape” to a point that they are experienced as “living human beings, through the narratological means of repetition, accumulation, relations to other characters, and transformations” by mimicking the life cycles of real people.[10]
James Phelan and Peter J. Rabinowitz, on the other hand, propose a mixture of both sides of the dichotomy, arguing that characters in narratives have both mimetic (realistic) and synthetic (artificial) components in addition to their thematic (conceptual) significance. This approach acknowledges the mimetic (realistic) elements by recognizing the likeness of characters to actual people, including their thoughts, feelings, and behavior, representing the human experience. It also identifies the synthetic (artificial) functions of characters within the narrative framework, their role in driving the plot, and their relationships with other characters. Furthermore, the thematic (conceptual) dimension of characters emphasizes their ability to represent greater ideological, ethical, or political concepts.
According to Mikhail Bakhtin, a character is a speaking person with their unique ideological discourse and their own language. Like real persons, they are shaped by dialogic relationships, through which they continually interact with their surroundings and other characters and are constantly influenced by them. In simple terms, dialogism is the idea that meaning and identity are shaped through interaction; therefore, a character’s voice is never isolated but always in dialogue with other voices—whether those of other characters, societal expectations, or even the reader’s interpretations.
According to Bakhtin, there are always “unrealized potential and unrealized demands” for the hero.[11] This unrealized growth potential contributes to the literary characters’ unfinished nature and opens the way to broad possibilities for change in the storyline. What is more, for Bakhtin, the concept of ‘self’ is always shaped in relation to the ‘other’: no character exists in isolation; rather, their identity is formed through interactions and responses from others.
Even his own external aspect is not really accessible to man, and he cannot interpret it as a whole; mirrors and photographs prove of no help; a man’s real external aspect can be seen and understood only by other persons, thanks to their spatial exotopy, and thanks to the fact that they are other.[12]
What Bakhtin refers to by the word vnenakhodimost (“outsideness” or “exotopy”) is the fact that a person can only be understood from another’s perspective, i.e., an “outer” perspective, since they cannot see themselves through their own eyes to fully grasp all aspects of their identity.[13] Additionally, Michael Holquist further explains that for persons or objects to be perceived as “a whole” or as something “finished,” they must be shaped in the time/space categories of the other, which is only possible through being perceived from the position of “outsideness.”[14] In effect, with this external viewpoint shaping the interpretation of the character, exotopy entails perceiving the self through the gaze of another and hearing the self through the voice of another.
The world of The Tale of Genji is a skillfully structured environment where specific temporal and spatial conventions frame social interaction, etiquette, and relationships. In a similar manner, starting with journeys from and to the capital and the following interactions with suitors, Tamakazura’s exposure to multiple characters from different settings shapes her identity within the spatio-temporal context of her storyworld. Assuming “understanding is achieved by the exotopy of the one who does the understanding in time, space, and culture,”[15] then for Tamakazura to perceive her ‘self,’ she must be seen by others to understand what is invisible to herself. As a literary character, Tamakazura also represents an unfinished figure with complexities and transitions in her character development, where various possibilities for change exist. This article explores the progression of evolving identities, personal growth, narrative roles, and character relationships within the Tamakazura Chapters. Each setting influences how Tamakazura is perceived and how she acts, reflecting Bakhtin’s view that time and space are integral to understanding character development.
However, in contrast to Bakhtin’s assertion that exotopy offers a more comprehensive understanding of the character’s position and role within the narrative, I argue that the character’s personal experience, internal thoughts, and self-discovery also play a significant role in their apprehensibility. Correspondingly, characters can be understood both from within and through the eyes of the other, as it can also be observed in classical Japanese court novels (monogatari), particularly in Tamakazura’s case in the Genji.
As the previous discussion of exotopy suggests, the unfolding of characters is inseparable from the narrative structures in which they are embedded. The dynamics of the plot can be seen as the temporal and spatial framework in which such interrelations materialize, situating characters within actions and events that both shape and reveal them. In a story, “[s]pace situates the characters and forms the backdrop or stage of the events.”[16]
It is usual to say that a plot (in the sense of an arrangement or structure) has an introduction, a complication, and a resolution; that is, it gets under way, then some difficulty or problem or complexity arises (usually a conflict of opposed wills or forces), and finally, there is some sort of settling down. A somewhat metaphoric way of putting it is to say that the plot is the tying and then the untying of a knot; the end is the dénouement (French for “untying”).[17]
Similarly, the Tamakazura Chapters also form an internal plot within the main story: an introduction is given in the Hahakigi 帚木 (“The Broom Tree”) chapter, then, a complication arises with the emergence of the local warrior, a resolution is presented upon encountering Yūgao’s serving lady, Ukon 右近, and settling down is achieved by entering Genji’s household. It is evident that Murasaki Shikibu masterfully ties and unties these knots, keeping the reader’s interest by creating plots within plots and stories within stories. In one of those side stories, Tamakazura’s character emerges as a central figure and shifts the narrative focus from Genji. Throughout her story, Tamakazura seeks to be reunited with her parents and desperately searches for a meaning in her life.
3 Tamakazura’s Story in a Nutshell
Although Tamakazura’s character is briefly mentioned at the beginning of the tale, she disappears from the narrative for seventeen years, and only in Chapter 22 does Tamakazura become the heroine of her own story. She holds the narrative’s focus for the following ten chapters, and her unusual relationship with Genji revitalizes the story. However, as Kobayashi Shigemi points out, Tamakazura cannot debut as the protagonist of a new storyline without a plot twist. Accordingly, introducing her character as the new heroine requires a convincing excuse for the character’s late appearance. Thus, Tamakazura’s absence is attributed to her being taken to Tsukushi (present-day Kyūshū), a region far from the capital. In addition, to become the central figure of her own storyline, Tamakazura must challenge Hikaru Genji’s position as the protagonist. Correspondingly, her integration into the same space as the protagonist in his household[18] becomes necessary. Therefore, the author meticulously plans Tamakazura’s return to the capital: she designs a dreadful local warrior[19] and a miraculous pilgrimage as a narrative device for Tamakazura’s entrance into the Rokujōin.[20]
Shifting the focus back to Tamakazura's first appearance, when Tō no Chūjō 頭中将, Genji’s best friend, rival, and cousin, shares his heartbreaking story. First, he corners then-17-year-old Genji to show some of his love letters, and then, two other junior officials join them in Genji’s chamber at the palace. The rainy night discussion is undoubtedly one of the most famous scenes in the story, and it is in this scene that “the critique of the ideal woman” takes place.[21] These four young men talk about their love affairs and share their experiences with women from different social ranks. When it is Tō no Chūjō’s turn, he shares his relationship with a woman of poor circumstances and their daughter, who is called “little pink” (nadeshiko 撫子).[22] The woman lives a miserable life by hiding in ruins. However, when Tō no Chūjō’s principal wife (kita no kata 北の方)[23] learns about their secret affair and threatens the woman, with no parents to depend on, she leaves him. Tō no Chūjō admits he could not find the woman or their daughter anywhere.
Later, Tō no Chujō’s pitiful lover reappears in the Yūgao 夕顔 (“The Twilight Beauty”) chapter, where Genji discovers a mysterious woman during a visit to his sick nurse outside the capital. The woman acquires the nickname of “Yūgao” (“twilight beauty” or “evening faces”) after the white-flowered vines in her garden and is referred to as such by the general readership. Nonetheless, their secret affair ends when Genji suddenly loses her to an unknown illness.[24] Yūgao’s death shakes Genji profoundly and makes it difficult for him to move on.
The narrator takes up little pink’s (future Tamakazura) story again midway through the story, and by going back in time, shares the little girl’s story after her mother’s disappearance. Yūgao’s wet nurse takes then-four-year-old Tamakazura under her protection and leaves the capital after her husband receives the post of Dazaifu Assistant (Dazai no Shōni 太宰少弐). Although she ponders reaching out to the girl’s father, she hesitates to leave the child under the care of a stepmother. As much as they wish to take the girl back to the capital, they cannot find the right time for it. However, when the girl turns into a beautiful young lady, the news reaches to many people, and she gains numerous suitors. When the Audit Commissioner from Higo,[25] who is fond of pretty women and has many wives, presses for marrying this young lady, the nurse and her oldest son, Bungo no Suke 豊後介, take Tamakazura with them and set out on a dangerous sea journey as they secretly escape to the capital.
Not having anyone in the capital, Tamakazura’s group stays around the city’s outskirts for a while. They embark on a pilgrimage, first to the Yawata Shrine (Iwashimizu Hachimangū 石清水八幡宮), and then to Hasedera 長谷寺. Along the way, a miraculous encounter happens in Tsubaichi 椿市,[26] where Ukon meets Tamakazura and the others. Later, when Genji hears about this discovery, he decides to have Yūgao’s daughter as her surrogate. After making the necessary arrangements, he welcomes Tamakazura into his newly built Rokujō mansion and introduces her as his long-lost daughter. Genji leaves the girl under the care of the lady called Hanachirusato,[27] and asks her to take care of his daughter just like he did with his son, Yūgiri. Tamakazura settles in the west wing of the summer quarter, and yet, soon, she becomes the heart of the Rokujōin. While desperately waiting for the day she is introduced to her real father, Tamakazura ends up becoming a pawn in Genji’s marriage plots, which becomes apparent in his enthusiastic announcement to Ukon, “I shall make a great fuss over her and drive the gallants wild”[28] (sukimono-domo no kokorozukusasuru kusawai nite, ito itō motenasamu すき者どもの心尽くさするくさはひにて、いといたうもてなさむ).[29] As Genji’s newly found daughter, Tamakazura becomes the center of court gossip, and her beauty and poised demeanor capture many suitors’ hearts.[30] Genji tries to entertain himself by creating a marriage tale (kyūkontan 求婚譚),[31] with the young noblemen competing with each other to receive Tamakazura’s hand in marriage. Soon enough, Genji too falls for the plot he so masterfully designed and becomes infatuated with her.
While the story has a vibrant interaction with young suitors, it also entertains the idea of a romantic relationship between Genji and Tamakazura. However, she eventually ends up marrying her least favorite suitor, Higekuro 髭黒.[32] Even though her sudden marriage causes an eventful start—with Higekuro's initial principal wife’s leaving his household with their children, Tamakazura achieves accomplishment both in court as the Mistress of Staff (naishi no kami 内侍)[33] and in her personal life as the principal wife of a highly respected and influential courtier. As she leaves the narrative stage, her story concludes with her giving birth to her first son.
4 On Naming Practices: Tamakazura’s Social Birth and Identity Formation
Names in The Tale of Genji, as in real life, are not chosen by the characters themselves but rather given by others. However, a crucial issue to consider when speaking about the characters in the Genji is that the names by which modern readers address these characters are not their actual names.[34] In fact, there are only a few examples in the story where characters are addressed by their personal names.[35] Besides poetic allusions, the names attributed to the characters influence the story’s plot in a manner that builds identities in the narrative. Moreover, contrary to biological birth, naming practices are one of the means of realizing one’s “social birth.”[36] In a similar light, Tamakazura’s social birth is performed by her changing identities and appellations in the narrative, which is mainly centered in Genji’s Rokujō mansion. John Frow explains the naming as a set of culturally variable, highly systematic practices that serve multiple social functions. Not only do names link persons to bodies, but they also form relationships, designate kinship structures —pertaining to inheritance and legitimacy—and constitute degrees of social distance or intimacy.[37] Correspondingly, Tamakazura’s position is defined by her parental, societal, and marital relationships.
4.1 Yukari of the Past
Yukari signifies a connection between people, places, or things, including karmic bonds. In the literary context of The Tale of Genji, “karmic bonds” function as a narrative tool of continuity, enabling characters to exist not as isolated creations but as bearers of past “connections,” whether social, genealogical, or sentimental.
After Ukon returns from her pilgrimage, she visits Genji’s chambers and informs him of her miraculous encounter with the young lady she met at the marketplace: “… the person I found is kin to the dew gone so soon from the twilight beauties”[38] (hakanaku kietamainishi yūgao no tsuyu no on-yukari o namu, mitamaetsuketarishi はかなく消えたまひにし夕顔の露の御ゆかりをなむ見たまへつけたりし).[39] When she reveals this discovery, Ukon uses the term “yukari” as a blood relative to describe the connection between Tamakazura and Yūgao, which goes beyond a physical resemblance, contrasting with the yukari example seen in Genji’s mother, the Kiritsubo Intimate (Kiritsubo no kōi 桐壺更衣), and the Empress Fujitsubo (Fujitsubo no Miya 藤壺宮). Yūgao and Tamakazura’s connection represents their familial ties and strong bond as mother and daughter. Moreover, Ukon’s choice in presenting Tamakazura designates her function in the narrative as her mother’s “link” (yukari) and turns her into a “memento” (katami 形見)[40] for Genji.[41] Within the broader context of the narrative, Tamakazura’s presence as a living reminder of her mother becomes intertwined with her role as the heroine of the Tamakazura Chapters. The following poem informs Tamakazura of her mother’s relationship with Genji:
ものまめやかに、あるべかしく書きたまひて、端に、
「かく聞こゆるを、
知らずとも尋ねて知らむ三島江に
生ふる三稜のすぢは絶えじを」[42]
He adopted a serious, correct tone and wrote along the edge,
“The one who so addresses you
you do not yet know, but you need only ask and will quickly learn
what lasting bond, stem by stem, the Mishima reeds proclaim.”[43]
Genji’s first letter to Tamakazura features a complex poem with a double meaning, in which word associations play an essential role. Firstly, Genji intends to test the skills of this unknown young lady from outside the capital through the usage of multilayered poetic devices such as “linked words” (engo 縁語) of Mishimae, miogi, and suji, and the “hanging words” (kakekotoba 掛詞) on “suji”—literally, reed stalks, figuratively, bloodline, lineage, ties. Genji’s purpose for sending such a poem is to avoid disappointment as he did with the Hitachi Princess (Hitachi no Miya no Himegimi 常陸宮の姫君)—also referred to as Suetsumuhana 末摘花—and evaluate Tamakazura’s courtly talents. In his poem, the “bond” formed with the reeds’ stem (mikuri no suji 三稜のすぢ) implies Genji’s past relationship with Yūgao, claiming it “links” him to Tamakazura. The threads of this relationship that form an unbreakable bond (suji wa taeji すぢは絶えじ) were only waiting to be “sought out” (tazunete shiramu 尋ねて知らむ) and rewritten into the text.
The next poem Genji exchanges with Yūgao’s daughter forms this new heroine’s traditional name:[44] “Yes, my love lives on, just as it did long ago; yet, O tendril wreath, say what long and winding stem led you all the way to me!”[45] (Koiwataru mi wa sorenaredo tamakazura ikanaru suji o tazune kitsuramu 恋ひわたる身はそれなれど玉かづらいかなるすぢを尋ね来つらむ).[46] On the surface, the poem suggests that Genji’s love for Yūgao persists. However, it takes on a deeper, more intimate tone as it alludes to Tamakazura being a surrogate—a replacement of her mother—for Genji’s desires, hinting that his love can continue to live on in her. Moreover, the symbolic imagery of the “tendril wreath” (tamakazura) and its long “stem” (suji) signifies their “link” (yukari) and implies that it is what has led Tamakazura to Genji. The poem conveys a sense of fate and inevitability as if their encounter was predestined. Additionally, although the word suji is generally used for the “family lineage,” Edith Sara points out its allusion “to denote ‘plots’ (as in koto no suji, sequence of events, or katari suji, sequence of a story) implying the events leading to Genji’s adoption of Tamakazura.”[47]
Aligning with Sarra, the word suji in Genji’s two poems is a powerful metaphor that captures the intertwining of love, yearning, and lineage. Not only does it blur the lines between maternal and romantic affection, but it also invokes narrative threads toward yukari, particularly in the sense of an inherited and rediscovered connection. Thus, interpreting suji as the linguistic remnant of a profound yukari indicates how Genji positions Tamakazura’s presence as a continuation of a past bond with her mother and a necessity within the tale’s plotline for her character’s re-emergence. Accordingly, the appellation Tamakazura, along with the terms yukari, katami, and suji, articulate the modes of connection that link Tamakazura to Genji.
4.2 The Lady of Wandering
Tamakazura’s sorrowful life has been subjected to many discussions, and her life in Tsukushi has been read as a female variant of the young noble’s exile tale (kishu ryūritan 貴種流離譚).[48] In this regard, her physical and psychological journey reflects her wandering spirit, mediating her designation as sasurai no himegimi [49] 流離の姫君 (“the lady of wandering”) by Japanese scholars in the field.[50] Moreover, due to its double meaning, the concept of sasurai, which can be translated as both “wandering” and “exile,” weaves a more profound meaning into Tamakazura’s character. It encapsulates the time Tamakazura spent outside the narrative in the provinces and interprets it as the exile of the noble. Similarly, Tamakazura’s mother, Yūgao, spends her life in hiding after being subjected to harsh threats from Tō no Chūjō’s principal wife. Even though Yūgao stays within the capital’s borders, she lives in an eerie place in the ruins, resembling exile.
Furthermore, Hinata Kazumasa reads Yūgao’s exile as a spatial wandering due to her restless spirit, which he claims to be from being buried alone in poor conditions, instead of a family grave.[51] According to Hinata, Tamakazura inherits her mother’s exile (sasurai) as her link (yukari) in the sense that Tamakazura’s departure to Tsukushi continues Yūgao’s exile and spiritual wandering.[52] Thus, her identity as the “lady of wandering” passes on to Tamakazura from her mother. At the same time, her position points toward the theme of searching for one’s roots and identity, a relatable aspect of human existence that Murasaki Shikibu utilizes to explore the universal human desire to understand and build connections with one’s origins and heritage through Tamakazura’s character.
4.3 Fujiwara no Ruri-gimi
Despite the passing years, Ukon is not able to overcome the sadness of her former mistress’s sudden death. She regularly embarks on pilgrimages to Hasedera to offer prayers to Kannon 観音,[53] hoping to find her mistress’s daughter, which miraculously happens seventeen years later.[54] Ukon requests another prayer, only this time to express her gratitude for reuniting with Yūgao’s daughter: “This is for Fujiwara [no] Ruri-gimi, as usual. Mind you pray carefully. I recently found her, you see. (Rei no Fujiwara no Ruri no Kimi to iu ga on tame ni tatematsuru. Yoku inori mōshitamae. Sono hito, kono goro namu mitatematsuri idetaru)”[55] (例の藤原の瑠璃君といふが御ために奉る。よく祈り申したまへ。その人、このごろなむ見たてまつり出でたる).[56] Although there is no direct indication, Ruri-gimi 瑠璃君 (“Lady Ruri”) seems to be a childhood nickname given to Tamakazura by Ukon. Moreover, Ukon’s addressing of the prayers to Fujiwara no Ruri-gimi is presumably the author’s way to emphasize Tamakazura’s lineage as the daughter of a distinguished nobleman.[57] It is due to her birth father’s position—Tō no Chūjō is a higher rank court official from a head branch of the Fujiwara clan—in society that the young lady is called Fujiwara.
Another instance where Tamakazura’s “name” is questioned in the story is when Genji hears the news of Princess Ōmiya’s 大宮[58] illness.
春日の神の御心違ひぬべきも、つひには隠れてやむまじきものから、あぢきなくわざとがましき後の名までうたたあるべし、なほなほしき人の際こそ、今様とては、氏改むることのたはやすきもあれ、など思しめぐらすに、親子の御契り絶ゆべきやうなし、同じくは、わが心ゆるしてを知らせたてまつらむ、[…][59]
[…] the God of Kasuga will be displeased, and the truth will come out in the end anyway, leaving me a lasting and unfortunate reputation as a master of devious plots. No, the way people do things now, it would be easy enough for her to take a new name if she were merely common, but as it is… Besides, the bond between parent and child survives every attempt to sever it—I might as well come forward myself to let him know.[60]
Genji frets about exposing Tamakazura’s true identity to her father, fearing punishment from the deities if the young lady were unable to perform her ancestral duties for her paternal grandmother’s funeral. The great protector of Heian-kyō, the Kasuga deity,[61] was believed to be the clan deity (ujigami 氏神) of the Fujiwara, and Tamakazura, as a Fujiwara by blood, would be expected to perform prayers to the Kasuga deity and go into mourning in the event of Ōmiya’s death. However, in the eyes of society Tamakazura was a Minamoto, as she is introduced as the long-lost daughter of Genji.[62] Thus, entering Genji’s household not only becomes a physical transition for her but also a major identity transformation, which marks Tamakazura’s “social birth” by giving her the name of Minamoto.
As a “master of devious plots,” Genji shared with Ukon his strong desire to find Yūgao’s daughter many years ago. Thus, when Ukon tries to convince the nurse to bring Tamakazura to Genji’s Rokujō mansion, she conveys his wishes to care for Tamakazura in place of her mother, “I should so love to have her instead! I regret having so few children, and I could put it about that I had found one of my own”[63] (Kano on-kawari ni mitatematsuramu, ko mo sukunaki ga sōzōshiki ni, waga ko o tazuneidetaru to hito ni wa shirasete かの御かはりに見たてまつらむ、子も少なきがさうざうしきに、わが子を尋ね出でたると人には知らせて).[64] Despite his fatherly words and attitude in front of an audience, his intentions prove to be not as innocent as they seem. Genji not only wants to own a part of Yūgao —a lover he lost so suddenly and cannot forget—but also plans to get himself a new daughter of marriageable age, of whom he has so few.[65] However, his plan conflicts with his romantic feelings for Tamakazura. Ukon’s speech reveals the emotional tone and the performative aspect of social identity through narrative framing (hito ni wa shirasete) in Genji’s actions. His framing Tamakazura as a surrogate daughter by concealing her true parentage proves to be an existing and planned thought as implied by Ukon’s words. The quotative particle to in this phrase marks indirect discourse, in which Genji’s wishes are reported to others (i.e., that Tamakazura is his own daughter), and represents his manipulative perception of a character’s construction in a socially acceptable or politically useful narrative through speech.
Furthermore, Genji’s ultimate goal can be interpreted as achieving power in court politics through marriage plots by claiming to be the father of Yūgao’s daughter instead of returning the girl to her true father, who is his political rival.[66] Thus, by placing his rival’s daughter into his household under false pretenses, Genji alters Tamakazura’s social identity and transforms her from a Fujiwara to a Minamoto. This act, therefore, exemplifies his strong character agency[67] within the universe of The Tale of Genji and signals his plans for Tamakazura’s future, which are doomed to fail due to Higekuro’s involvement.
5 Tamakazura’s Characterization
Following Bakhtin’s concept of exotopy, it can be assumed that characters need other characters to be seen and shaped in the narrative. However, analyzing character formation and its function in a story additionally requires exploring the character’s mental state, interaction with other characters, and how it operates within the narrative. This point would necessitate the integration of Phelan and Rabinowitz’s three dimensional character approach introduced earlier: mimetic (realistic), synthetic (artificial), and thematic (conceptual).
Having previously discussed Genji’s intentions to bring Tamakazura to the Rokujōin, which reveal the story’s thematic significance, I now turn to the character relationships to illuminate the synthetic elements. In Tamakazura’s case, the most influential figure is Hikaru Genji when character interactions are considered. Due to the customs of the time,[68] none of her suitors were permitted to see Tamakazura; therefore, her “public” father, Genji, is the sole character allowed to have close contact with her. Although His Highness of War “Hotaru” (Hotaru Hyōbukyō no Miya 螢兵部卿宮) briefly catches a glimpse of Tamakazura’s figure during the fireflies incident,[69] Yūgiri’s kaimami 垣間見[70] scene in the Nowaki 野分 (“The Typhoon”) chapter is the only instance other than Genji directly seeing Tamakazura. As the proper young man he is, Yūgiri worries about the damage the typhoon might have caused to the inhabitants of the Rokujōin and visits each woman in turn, including the young lady in the west wing. The imperfectly placed curtain in Tamakazura’s chamber hints at the possibility of hidden truths and concealed desires. Lifting the panel, Yūgiri unveils an unexpected scene that challenges conventional notions of familial roles and raises questions about the true nature of Genji and Tamakazura’s relationship. Being exposed to his father’s flirtation with his supposed sister creates an element of shock and intrigue for Yūgiri, who is both captivated and disturbed by what he witnesses.
His initial surprise at the apparent familiarity and intimacy between Genji and Tamakazura underlines the dissonance between moral principles and the scene in front of his eyes. This discrepancy highlights one of the broader themes in the Genji’s narrative, of seeing and being seen, or in other words, how a character is perceived by another and how perceptions shape the character’s own understanding of themselves and their relationships. On this occasion, Yūgiri’s gaze only focuses on Tamakazura’s physical appearance—her hair spilling forward like a wave—and draws attention to her beauty, vulnerability, and emotional turmoil. How she leans on Genji while displaying obvious distress reveals their relationship’s complex dynamics. As a consequence, the reader is urged to consider the multidimensional meanings that emerge when characters’ actions and feelings are made visible to the gaze of others, just as Yūgiri looks through the panel and gains insight into a private moment of other characters.
Nevertheless, while Yūgiri’s gaze is insufficient for determining Tamakazura’s characteristics, the protagonist Hikaru Genji’s perspective proves to be broader and is treated as the primary source of information in the narrative. In many scenes, Genji’s attention is not only focused on Tamakazura’s physical attributes but also gives insights into her personality, building a more human-like character. Hence, the following scene demonstrates Tamakazura’s portrayal through Genji’s eyes.
君はうち背きておはする、側目いとをかしげなり。撫子の細長に、このごろの花の色なる御小袿、あはひけ近ういまめきて、もてなしなども、さはいへど、田舎びたまへりしなごりこそ、ただありにおほどかなる方にのみは見えたまひけれ、人のありさまを見知りたまふままに、いとさまよう、なよびかに、化粧なども心してもてつけたまへれば、いとど飽かぬところなく、はなやかにうつくしげなり。他人と見なさむは、いと口惜しかべう思さる。[71]
The lady sat turned away from him, revealing a striking profile. Over a long dress in a pink layering she wore a dress gown stylishly in harmony with the season’s flower. Her deportment, once marked after all by a sort of natural guilelessness—the only visible trace of her provincial upbringing—was by now impeccably pliant, as she came more and more to know how people really behaved, and her judicious use of makeup so heightened her already splendid looks that she was a dazzling pleasure to behold.[72]
In the scene above, Genji visits Tamakazura’s quarters in the west wing to advise her on answering her suitors’ letters. The narrator describes Tamakazura’s outer appearance and highlights the contrast between her provincial origins and her recently improved courtly taste, shown in her garments and well-balanced makeup. Genji cannot help but be mesmerized by Tamakazura’s charming personality and intelligence, which surpasses her mother in various aspects.[73] Although raised in the provinces, Tamakazura carefully watches the ladies in the Rokujōin to correct her rural manners and quickly adapts to the capital’s standards, which emphasizes her observation skills. At the same time, her provincial background allows Tamakazura to view the Heian court with a degree of detachment, highlighting her as a liminal character who crosses over the threshold of the center from the periphery.
Correspondingly, the term “liminal” is placed within a narratological and structural context in this article. By doing so, it refers to Tamakazura’s position, identity, and role, which is marked by ambiguity due to not belonging entirely to one category or the other. Following her transition from a provincial character to an ideal woman,[74] whether in her societal or private life, Tamakazura exists between blurred lines. Based on this argument, Tamakazura’s character can convincingly be termed as a “liminal character.”[75] Furthermore, when her narrative liminality is considered, she is neither a real daughter nor a romantic partner to Genji, yet Tamakazura is ambiguously positioned between these roles. At the same time, her social liminality is reflected by her provincial origins despite her noble birth as a Fujiwara, and later by becoming a Minamoto as a surrogate daughter of Genji. Therefore, to explore the story’s mimetic (realistic) dimensions and Tamakazura’s psychological liminality in which her self-awareness fluctuates between subordinance as an object of male desire and agency through poetic expression and resilience, Tamakazura’s inner thoughts, self-reflections, and character growth are examined in the following.
5.1 Self-Awareness: Perception and Reflection
Even though Tamakazura is often portrayed as a symbol (ornament) or ideal of beauty, elegance, and potential wifehood, this external definition contrasts with her internal experience of uncertainty and vulnerability. After being visited by Taifu no Gen, a “tall and imposingly massive man of about thirty”[76] (misoji bakari naru onoko no taketakaku monomonoshiku futorite, kitanage naru keredo 三十ばかりなる男の丈高くものものしくふとりて、きたなげなけれど),[77] whose only motive was to add a distinguished lady to his collection, the narrator shares Tamakazura’s feelings in an indirect interior monologue:[78] “the young lady herself was in a pathetic state and quite naturally sure that she would rather die”[79] (himegimi no hitoshirezu omoitaru sama no ito kokorogurushikute, ikitaraji to omoi shizumitamaeru, kotowari to oboyureba 姫君の人知れず思いたるさまのいと心苦しくて、生きたらじと思ひ沈みたまへる、ことわりとおぼゆれば).[80] Nevertheless, the nurse’s family saves her from becoming the wife of this provincial figure, even though their journey to the capital results in her becoming a puppet in another man’s collection. Feeling defenseless and alone, Tamakazura compares herself to the leech child from Kojiki [81] when she meets Hikaru Genji, “I vanished ‘before I could yet stand,’ and since then I have never felt more than half alive”[82] (ashitatazu shizumi some haberi ni keru nochi, nanigotomo aru ka naki ka ni namu 脚立たず沈みそめはべりにける後、何ごともあるかなきかになむ).[83] As she becomes an orphan at a young age, Tamakazura reflects on this feeling of helplessness by alluding to being unable to stand on her own feet as if she were the limbless leech child without parental support, which is essential for holding a respectable position in the Heian period’s aristocratic society.
Earlier chapters of the tale describe Tamakazura as a young woman concerned with her future who, despite her efforts, cannot be united with her real father. Compared to other female characters in the tale, one feature that stands out in Tamakazura’s characterization is that she shows perception through senses, self-awareness, and agency, signaling her unique formation. Tamakazura is a character who appears in many scenes throughout the Tamakazura Chapters, each illustrating her growing consciousness and comprehension of her circumstances. Not having a mother to look up to or occasions to acquire life experiences while growing up in a distant land, Tamakazura learns about the human condition through tales (monogatari), “[…] her reading of old tales taught her what people are like and what the ways of the world are”[84] (mukashi monogatari o mitamō ni mo, yōyō hito no arisama, yo no naka no aru yō o mishiritamaeba 昔物語を見たまふにも、やうやう人のありさま、世の中のあるやうを見知りたまへば).[85] As an avid reader, she uses stories to educate herself and better understand the world around her. Tamakazura’s passion for illustrated tales (e-monogatari 絵物語) not only introduces The Tale of Sumiyoshi (Sumiyoshi monogatari 住吉物語)[86] but also sets the stage for the famous “discussion of tales” (monogatari-ron 物語論)[87] in the Hotaru 蛍 (“The Fireflies”) chapter.
西の対には、ましてめづらしくおぼえたまふことの筋なれば、明け暮れ書き読み営みおはす。つきなからぬ若人あまたあり、ざまざまにめづらかなる人の上などを、まことにやいつはりにや、言ひ集めたる中にも、わがありさまのやうなるはなかりけりと見たまふ。住吉の姫君のさし当たりけむをりはさるものにて、今の世のおぼえもなほ心ことなめるに、主計頭がほとほとしかりけむなどぞ、かの監がゆゆしさを思しなずらへたまふ。[88]
This sort of thing particularly intrigued the young lady in the west wing, who therefore gave herself all day long to copying and reading. She had several young gentlewomen suitably gifted to satisfy this interest. Among her assemblage of tales she found accounts, whether fact or fiction, of many extraordinary fates, but none, alas, of any like her own. The trials faced by the young lady in Sumiyoshi were remarkable, of course, and so, too, was her fame still in the present world, and her narrow escape from the Director of Reckoning certainly had a good deal in common with the terrors of that Audit Commissioner.[89]
Including Tamakazura, the ladies in the Rokujōin spend the long rainy season amusing themselves by reading and copying old tales all day to pass the time in the summer. With scattered papers everywhere and tangled hair, Tamakazura’s depiction provides a broader picture of her desperate efforts to understand her situation. Even so, she struggles to find a character with experiences and feelings resembling hers while searching for a meaning to her misfortunes and eventful fate. Living in the Rokujō mansion under the pretense of being Genji’s long-lost daughter, his romantic motives cause constant worry to Tamakazura. Nevertheless, in all those stories, she finds no heroine in a position similar to her peculiar situation with Genji.
むつかしう聞こえたまふこと多かれば、いとどところせき心地して、置き所なきもの思ひつきて、いとなやましうさへしたまふ。
かくて、事の心知る人は少なうて、疎きも親しきも、無下の親ざまに思ひきこえたるを、かうやうの気色の漏り出でば、いみじう人笑はれに、うき名にもあるべきかな、父大臣などの尋ね知りたまふにても、まめまめしき御心ばへにもあらざらむものから、ましていとあはつけう、待ち聞き思さんこと、とよろづに安げなう思し乱る。[90]
[…] [Genji] wrote to her instead so often and so insistently that she felt more and more hedged about until, trapped and at her wits’ end, she fell frankly ill. Very few people knew what the matter was, and considering that everyone else, near or far, was lost in admiration of Genji’s fatherly ways, it seemed to her that if any rumor of this got out, she would be a laughingstock and her name would be ruined forever. Why (she said to herself in a frenzy of anxiety), even if my father did find out about me, he would probably make no great effort, and if he heard news like this, it would probably mean the end![91]
Genji masterfully balances his actions when changing from a fatherly figure to a courtier in strategic movements, and his secret flirtatiousness emerges in intimate moments. Additionally, since they are always in close proximity to female attendants, Tamakazura is in a precarious position. Being unaccustomed to the nature of a tryst, Tamakazura is terrified by Genji’s amorous advances, thinking that if they are exposed, it will ruin her name. Thus, her building resistance to Genji’s attempts is necessary to maintain her dignity and protect her reputation until the reunion with her birth father, Tō no Chūjō. In this regard, Tamakazura skillfully conceals her emotions from others, yet the narrative indicates through her thoughts and feelings that she is highly aware of her circumstances. While her fear and anxiety dominate the narrative, Tamakazura’s emotional and sensual perception becomes observable. She feels overwhelmed, displaced, and uncertain, but cannot yet articulate a coherent understanding of her identity or role. Moreover, her constant worry about public opinion of her relationship with Genji reflects Tamakazura’s conceptual awareness of herself, her position, emotions, and decisions, including her moral and existential insights. Perhaps Tamakazura would also fall for Genji’s otherworldly beauty and seductive charms just like any other woman. Yet, out of fear of getting exposed for having a love affair—one that would be interpreted as an incestuous relationship in the eyes of society—Tamakazura resists Genji’s advances. Considering Utsusemi 空蝉 and Hikaru Genji’s story, which is told in great detail in the earlier chapters, it is difficult to say that Tamakazura is the only character who resists Genji and is aware of her circumstances. Nonetheless, it is rare to find such a detailed description of a female character, especially among those who have not yet reached adulthood.
In contrast, Akiyama Ken’s critical reading of Tamakazura’s position suggests her character lacks agency in autonomously choosing how to interact with other characters. Akiyama adds that, considering most of her social interactions are mediated by her foster father Genji, Tamakazura is constrained by submissiveness.[92] In comparison, Fujimoto Katsuyoshi views Tamakazura in a different light and points out her “tenacious inner strength” (shitataka na seishinryoku したたかな精神力) and “ability to take action” (kōdōryoku 行動力) in navigating through complex social dynamics and protecting her societal reputation.[93] Despite facing various hardships, Tamakazura has society recognize her sudden marriage to Higekuro as an official marriage instead of viewing it as a scandal.[94] Although marrying him was not what she wished for, in the end, Tamakazura establishes a stable household for herself by moving into Higekuro’s house and becoming his principal wife. Similarly, Sarra comments on the Genji narrative’s exaggeration of immobile female characters by suggesting they represent “willed feminine passivity” and labels Tamakazura as the “most successful” character, who carries “dangerously willful female agency.”[95]
Indeed, Tamakazura initially does not take the initiative to act independently. Many of the life-changing decisions are made by her guardians: her journey to Tsukushi and return to the capital (the nurse’s family), moving into Genji’s household instead of her real father’s (Ukon), and choosing which suitors to interact with and how to respond to their letters (Genji). However, throughout the story, Tamakazura’s passivity shifts to vitality as she gains a growing sense of agency and resilience.
6 Character Development
As part of his marriage politics, Genji turns Tamakazura into an object of desire to attract young courtiers to his new mansion. Yet in a twisted way, he himself becomes one of them in pursuing Tamakazura’s love, which starkly contrasts with how an aristocratic father should behave. Rather than providing her with a secure and loving environment, Genji prioritizes his desires above his surrogate daughter’s self-interests. In addition, he exposes this inexperienced young woman to the complex world of courtship, where her worth is measured by the degree of attention she attracts from the courtiers.
女君も、御年こそ過ぐしたまひにたるほどなれ、世の中を知りたまはぬ中にも、すこしうち世馴れたる人のありさまをだに見知りたまはねば、これよりけ近きさまにも思しよらず、思ひのほかにもありける世かなと、嘆かしきに、いと気色もあしければ、人々、御心地なやましげに見えたまふと、もてなやみきこゆ。[96]
At her age she had a certain number of years behind her, but quite apart from her own ignorance of men’s ways, she knew no one with the smallest experience of the world, and greater intimacy than this was therefore still beyond her ken. She was so visibly devastated by this shocking turn in her fortunes that her gentle-women thought she was ill and could not imagine how to make her feel better.[97]
Following the typical pattern, aristocratic marriages took place shortly after the coming-of-age ceremony—genpuku 元服 for boys and mogi 裳着 for girls—which was “a rite of passage symbolizing the attainment of adulthood”[98] and was held when the children were between “ten to fifteen years old.”[99] According to Heian marriage practices, at the age of twenty-two Tamakazura was considered beyond marriageable age. It is not unlikely that while waiting for the day on which the young lady would reunite with her father, the nurse’s family does not have an official coming-of-age ceremony in the provinces. Tamakazura is therefore not considered a marriageable adult until the “donning of the train” ceremony (i.e., mogi) held by Genji under Tō no Chūjō’s sponsorship. The narrator’s comments on Tamakazura above accentuate her marginalization and inexperience (yo no naka o shiritamawanu naka) despite her progressing age.
Genji’s strategic exploitation of his father role exposes Tamakazura’s vulnerability as an orphan. He frequently takes advantage of his position as the father to get close to her, using all kinds of excuses, such as teaching Tamakazura to play the koto 箏.[100] Although Genji tries to get closer to Tamakazura and spend intimate time with her, he also creates opportunities to showcase other men. This contradictory behavior follows Genji’s motive to prove his superiority over other male characters—particularly the suitors—by displaying his magnificence and beauty next to them to ultimately steal the young lady’s heart. To achieve this goal, Genji organizes an archery event to let Tamakazura catch a glimpse of her suitors. Her prominent courtiers, including Genji’s younger half-brother, Hotaru and Tō no Chūjō’s eldest son Kashiwagi, along with Genji’s son Yūgiri, participate in this event and showcase their talents.
On another occasion, Tamakazura’s character is placed in a setting where all important male figures in the Tamakazura Chapters—in addition to the archery group, Tō no Chūjō, Higekuro, and Reizei also appear—are gathered in the same space for Emperor Reizei’s winter outing to Ōharano 大原野 in the Miyuki 御幸 (“The Imperial Progress”) chapter. This setting almost mirrors the famous “rainy night discussion” and becomes a shinasadame (“ranking the superiority”) for male courtiers, where Tamakazura compares these men to each other.
あてなる人は、みなものきよげにけはひことなべいものとのみ、大臣、中将などの御にほひに目馴れたまへるを、出で消えどものかたはなるにやあらむ、同じ目鼻とも見えず、口惜しうぞ圧されたるや。兵部卿宮もおはす。右大将の、さばかり重りかによしめくも、今日のよそひいとなまめきて、胡籙など負ひて仕うまつりたまへり、色黒く鬚がちに見えて、いと心づきなし。いかでかはつくろひたてたる顔の色あひには似たらむ、[…][101]
She had assumed that all noble gentlemen were comely, accustomed as she was to the grace of Genji and the Captain, but such company as this cast a shadow over them, for they seemed not even to have the same eyes or noses, and they hardly deserved a glance. His Highness of War was there, too. The Commander of the Right, ever weighty and imposing, served His Majesty in great style today with a quiver on his back, but his heavy black beard was thoroughly unprepossessing. What could such a face ever have had in common with a prettily made-up woman’s?[102]
Within the blurred lines of his parental care and romantic feelings for Tamakazura, Genji educates her on the intricacies of court life and the relationship dynamics of man and woman, thereby fulfilling a function usually taken on by mothers. The time she spends with Genji and his son, Yūgiri, contributes to Tamakazura’s development in a different aspect: it trains the young lady’s eyes, hones her judgmental skills, and turns Tamakazura into a critic as seen in her harsh comments on these men’s appearance and presence. With the sole exception of Emperor Reizei, who has an uncanny resemblance to Genji, no one compares to him in Tamakazura’s eyes. Field comments on this scene as “an educational moment” and a chance for Tamakazura to develop her discrimination skills.[103] Correspondingly, behind the selfish act of promoting his glory, Genji teaches Tamakazura womanhood by providing her opportunities to evaluate her suitors. Ironically, the harshest of all her remarks are directed to Higekuro’s heavily bearded face, the man who later becomes her husband.
In the story, Genji usually hides his motives behind a socially acceptable façade and behaves in a fatherly manner in front of an audience. However, during one of his night visits to the west wing, Genji takes advantage of the withdrawn gentlewomen and attempts to kindle a romantic mood with Tamakazura by gently undressing himself: “[…] the passion aroused by his own declarations, now moved him skillfully to disguise the rustling of his meltingly soft robe and to lie down beside her”[104] (natsukashii hodo naru ōnzo-domo no kewai wa, ito yō magirawashisubeshi tamaite, chikayaka ni fushi tamae ba なつかしいほどなる御衣どものけはひは、いとよう紛らはしすべしたまひて、近やかに臥したまへば).[105] As she becomes terrified at the thought of being caught by her gentlewomen in this inappropriate position for a father and daughter, Tamakazura’s tears fall uncontrollably. Overcome with a sense of rejection, Genji pleads to Tamakazura, “It is very unkind of you to feel this way. Any woman should properly yield, it seems to me, even a complete stranger, because that is the way of the world”[106] (Kō obosu koso tsurakere. Mote hanae shiranu hito dani, yo no kotowari nite, mina yurusu waza nameru o かう思すこそつらけれ。もて離れ知らぬ人だに、世のことわりにて、みなゆるすわざなめるを),[107] and accuses her of coldness and hostility. This exchange shows the agency and resilience that Tamakazura’s character embodies. At the same time, Genji’s remark emphasizes how Tamakazura differs from other women when it was the custom to “properly yield” to the advances of men. As much as Tamakazura is utterly ashamed of Genji’s foolish behavior, she has no one to share her feelings with, since no one knows the true nature of their relationship. Tamakazura keeps everything to herself and hates Genji for putting her through these situations: “this sort of thing was so unlike what anyone could imagine of Genji that she kept it to herself and disliked him intensely for it.”[108] (kakaru suji ni, katekemo hito no omoi yori kikoyu beki koto naraneba, kokoro hitotsuni omoishitsutsu, sama kotoni utomashi to omoi kikoe tamō かかる筋に、かてけも人の思ひよりきこゆべきことならねば、心ひとつに思しつつ、さま異に疎ましと思ひきこえたまふ).[109]
The conflict between Tamakazura’s feelings for Genji and the social consequences reflects their complex and emotionally charged relationship within the tale, further adding depth to the themes of love, resilience, and societal constraints in the narrative. Soon, Tamakazura’s attitude toward Genji softens, and their relationship starts to change. Genji’s role as a father figure intertwines with his actions as a potential romantic partner, which causes his motives to become ambiguous and contradictory.
姫君も、はじめこそむくつけくうたてとも思ひたまひしか、かくてもなだらかに、うしろめたき御心はあらざりけりと、やうやう目馴れて、いとしも疎みきこえたまはず、さるべき御答へも、馴れ馴れしからぬほどに聞こえかはしなどして、見るままにいと愛敬づきかをりまさりたまへれば、なほさてもえ過ぐしやるまじく思し返す。[110]
At first she was nervous and apprehensive, but by and by, when she found him mild and not in the least disposed to alarm her, she gave in and no longer recoiled from him, conversing with him instead as necessary while still avoiding excessive intimacy. Meanwhile, she seemed to grow in charm and beauty before his very eyes, until he doubted that he could long resist her after all.[111]
Despite her initial discomfort with Genji, Tamakazura gradually gets used to his presence. Although she keeps her guard up around him, their interaction shows more familiarity. The narrator’s voice merges with Genji’s idealized internal gaze toward Tamakazura to draw attention to the changes in her character development during her time in the Rokujōin. The scene above brings out Genji’s contemplation of what Tamakazura’s future would be if he gave in to his sexual desires. He considers keeping Tamakazura in his mansion and visiting her chambers secretly when she finally accepts him. However, he is aware that it would ruin Tamakazura’s reputation, exposing them to public censure and humiliation. Therefore, despite the dilemma of keeping Tamakazura for herself or marrying her to another man, Genji concedes that she could never rival his attachment to Murasaki, and her social position would put her among his lesser women. Therefore, Genji reasons that Tamakazura would benefit more and be in a better position if she married a courtier whose affection she could enjoy without rivalry.[112]
6.1 Unfinished Character
The narrative setting, in which Tamakazura’s judgment skills of her suitors, as well as her taste in men, are molded under Genji’s influence, reflects how literary characters emerge through relational dynamics —what Mikhail Bakhtin identifies as the dialogic and unfinished nature of character construction. Fictional characters evolve as dynamic beings in the complex world of literary works, and their essence is deliberately constructed into the fabric of relationships with other characters. Correspondingly, the construction of characters results from an ongoing dialogue with their counterparts instead of producing their existence in isolation. The dialogic process affects the characters’ agency by attributing to them stratified identities that develop and change as the story progresses. In addition, through these interactions, the characters’ agency increases, and their distinctiveness becomes visible. According to Bakhtin, for the hero, there is always an “unrealized potential and unrealized demands. The future exists, and this future ineluctably touches upon the individual, has its roots in him.”[113] This unrealized potential for growth contributes to the literary characters’ unfinished nature. Thus, the characters continue to be shaped and defined through their interactions with others, contributing to the overall richness and complexity of the narrative. Likewise, the characters in The Tale of Genji bear within themselves many possible realities as they are not fixed entities but multi-layered constructions with psychological and emotional depth.
Although Tamakazura is formerly represented as an inexperienced young lady unfamiliar with the relationships between men and women, the narrator signals her growth in the following chapters. For example, the opening lines of the Fujibakama 藤袴 (“Thoroughwort Flowers”) chapter convey Tamakazura’s uneasiness about her appointment as Mistress of Staff. The interior monologue portrays Tamakazura as a more mature and self-conscious figure: “I wonder how I will ever escape them [Genji’s attention] and clear up all the conjectures that people must be making about me”[114] (kono otodo no ōnkokorobae no mutsukashiku kokorozuki naki mo, ikanaru tsuide ni ka wa, mote hanarete, hito no oshihakaru bekan meru suji o, kokoro kiyoku mo ari-hatsu beki この大臣の御心ばへのむつかしく心づきなきも、いかなるついでにかは、もて離れて、人の推しはかるべかめる筋を、心清くもありはつべき).[115] Tamakazura’s concern for entering the service at Emperor Reizei’s court lies in the rivalry it would cause with her half-sister, the Kokiden Consort, and Genji’s other adoptive daughter, Empress Akikonomu. Additionally, she emphasizes the weight of her liminal parentage between Genji and Tō no Chūjō, “…my uncertain reputation gives many people reason to doubt me and to be all prepared to hold me up to ridicule”[116] (asaki oboe nite, tada narazu omoi ii, ikade hito warae naru sama ni mikiki nasamu to ukei tamō hitobito mo ōku 浅きおぼえにて、ただならず思ひ言ひ、いかで人笑へなるさまに見聞きなさむとうけひたまふ人々も多く).[117] Therefore, while Shigematsu Norihiko’s observation indicates that Tamakazura’s initial submission and her frail mental state are “at the mercy of her entourage” (Subete wa sokkin no mono-tachi no nasu mama deすべては側近の者達のなすままで),[118] her depiction in the Fujibakama chapter marks a critical turning point in the narrative. Correspondingly, Tamakazura’s character arc exhibits self-awareness and agency, reflecting a gradual maturation that accumulates over the course of the previous chapters.
The interplay between the mimetic (realistic) and synthetic (artificial) components in the story can be seen in Tamakazura’s character, which creates a deliberate shift in narrative focus. On the other hand, her story’s thematic (conceptual) resonance becomes a focal point in the subsequent plotline as an intentional distraction from the main story. In a subtle analysis, Doris Bargen touches upon the intricacies of Tamakazura’s character, such as the balance between submission and assertion, and the complicated relationship of performance and identity. Throughout her story, Tamakazura does not remain as a fixed character and goes through various changes, which is a fundamental aspect of human nature. As a result, the shift from being a submissive young woman to an assertive one can be attributed to Tamakazura’s mimetic (realistic) construction, reflecting her character’s development and maturity. Phelan and Rabinowitz explain the change that occurs within the characters:
The mimetic component of character may or may not alter over the course of a narrative, but,
if it does, the change will typically be tied to the thematic functions of the character and hence
to the thematic purposes of the narrative. The bildungsroman, for example, is a subgenre of
the novel built on the principle that the protagonist will undergo some significant change not
just in fate but also in character. In just about every case, the progression will tie the change in
character to the thematic component of the narrative.[119]
The inherent relationship between mimetic (realistic) aspects of character development and thematic purposes is an interactive component where the narrative changes affect the characters’ functions. Following the example of the Bildungsroman, a German term that translates to “novel of formation” or “novel of education,” Phelan and Rabinowitz argue that the dramatic alterations in the protagonist’s fate and character make this relationship particularly clear, claiming the change is almost always connected to the thematic (conceptual) elements of the narrative. Takagi Kazuko draws attention to a shift in Genji’s character in the Tamakazura Chapters, and argues that he goes from being a “mythical hero” to a more secular and grounded figure—one situated within a mundane context as a relatively superior being in comparison with Tamakazura’s suitors and her biological father, Tō no Chūjō.[120] The changes in both Genji and Tamakazura show how the characters in the Genji are dynamic figures, and that their maturation in response to the circumstances mirrors the growth of real persons and contributes to developing their characters. Following their life journeys, both Hikaru Genji and Tamakazura’s characters exemplify the structure of the bildungsroman genre, portraying their development within a chronological timeline. In this case, Tamakazura transitions from a dependent young woman to one with a certain degree of autonomy.
7 Narrative and Thematic Function of Tamakazura
Norma Field’s seminal study, The Splendor of Longing in the Tale of Genji, offers a subtle discussion of the concept of major and minor chapters in the Genji and the structural significance of their narratives within the work, focusing on the so-called “minor heroines.”[121] Focusing particularly on Tamakazura as a “minor character,” Field argues that her existence in the story is “crucially marginal and therefore essential.”[122]
Taken as a whole, Tamakazura’s narrative distinguishes her from the several heroines who figure prominently in the story of the Rokujōin in part because she alone leaves that mansion in its heyday to marry into another house, where—after a troubled entrance—she eventually becomes the presiding mistress. Her arc as a character embodies something more than a minor figure subordinated to the plotline dominated by Genji’s house (and his marital designs).[123]
On the other hand, Sarra argues in favor of Tamakazura’s distinct narrative features and interprets her character arc as beyond that of a minor figure. Tamakazura stands out the most among the residents of the Rokujōin. However, it is not only due to the marriage story built around her character and the suitors, but also her resilience in submitting to Genji’s plans for her future and leaving his household by marrying a man he did not choose for her. In his study of the necessity of minor characters, Alex Woloch explains that the presence of minor characters illuminates how the narrative is constructed by drawing attention to the character-space. Hence, it reveals the dynamics between the sequence of the unfolding events (“story”) and the way those events are organized and presented in the story (“discourse”).[124] Woloch argues that an attempt to define a character within its “delimited functionality” would cause problems as “human beings take up more weight than they fill in this limited role, and it is difficult to separate their exterior function from their interior singularity.”[125] From this perspective, Woloch’s argument aligns with the character’s mimetic (realistic) modeling and attributes to characters human-like complexity and interiority that often exceeds their assigned functions in the story—their exterior function (their purpose within the narrative), and their interior singularity (the character’s implied inner-self or subjectivity).
All considered, classifying Tamakazura’s character as minor would only circumscribe and not define her narrative functions. Even though she is introduced as a provincial, helpless orphan—a memento (katami) and a surrogate—her character gradually develops a more substantial external and internal presence that disrupts her status as a minor character. As previously discussed in her characterization process, Tamakazura becomes a figure of liminality: a character between the major and the minor, and beyond the restrictions of both.
7.1 A Forgotten Maternal Line and a Tale of Wandering
Tamakazura’s appearance revives the memory of her mother and gives Yūgao’s abruptly ended, tragic story a sense of completeness. Tamakazura’s reintroduction is a narrative continuation of the Yūgao chapter, and a resurrection of a maternal line —in other words, the yukari (link, connection) between Yūgao and Tamakazura, but also the link between Genji and Yūgao. However, according to Fujimoto, Tamakazura’s tale goes beyond the yukari relationships formed in the narrative:
Unlike what Murasaki no Ue was to Fujitsubo, or Ukifune to Ōigimi, Tamakazura transcended the status of Yūgao’s “connection” (yukari) almost from the beginning. This was because the heroine of the Rokujōin, which symbolizes the splendor of Genji, would not make sense if she were a woman like Yūgao. Still, more importantly, she had to have attributes that would expose the contradictions of the Rokujōin —its class system, polygynous system, and political nature, as well as Genji’s amorous nature[126]—from the side of the female courtier as well. There is no point in having a woman who is simply demure, gentle, and absorbed in her sensuality like Yūgao. Therefore, superficially interpreting Tamakazura’s story simply as a tale of wandering (sasurai no monogatari) or a tale of connections (yukari no monogatari) cannot capture its essence. If we make an exaggerated point on Tamakazura as a mere shadow of Yūgao and fail to recognize her own identity, then we would misunderstand the nature of both Tamakazura’s character and story. The connection (yukari) is rather a condition at the political level that cannot be disregarded, due to being the daughter of Genji’s former lover and his rival, the Palace Minister. This issue is the main factor complicating this love story. Things like being Yūgao’s shadow had little meaning other than being a necessary introductory motif in a love story.[127]
The Tamakazura 玉鬘 (“The Tendril Wreath”) chapter creates a narrative space where Hikaru Genji and Tamakazura’s stories are integrated through a chain of recollections from the events in the Hahakigi chapter to the Yūgao chapter and coexist in a complex form. Fujimoto emphasizes that, while two other famous female characters, Murasaki and Ukifune, remain defined as substitutes of other women, Tamakazura’s connection to her mother is positioned not as her sole function but as an excuse for her reintroduction to the story. Considering her function as the central heroine of the Rokujōin in this side-story, this function necessitates a more complex character construction: not only must she embody the thematic representations of the Rokujōin outlined in the quote above, she must also reflect the contradictions embedded within that world. Moreover, Fujimoto argues that Tamakazura’s story cannot be reduced to her wandering and connection to her mother. Rather, it highlights other factors such as political rivalry between the two households, Genji's (Minamoto) and Tō no Chūjō’s (Fujiwara). Tamakazura is endowed with the narrative and thematic capacity to expose these contradictions from within the female position, rather than being a passive reflection of them.
The story’s narrative marginality is emphasized by Tamakazura’s long years spent in Tsukushi, a site of profound otherness often associated with aristocratic exile in the Heian period.[128] Moreover, her removal from the narrative center serves as an exile and a narrative device for critical reflection. This critical approach, therefore, provides a rare glimpse into the lives of the provincial characters. In this regard, the provinces clearly contrast the capital’s “courtly elegance” (miyabi). Moreover, motifs drawn from the structure of the stepdaughter tale (mamako-tan 継子譚)[129] give Tamakazura’s story a female-centered narrative mode marked by displacement, confinement, vulnerability, and eventual reintegration to the rightful place. This mirrors the noble exile narrative characterized by Genji’s exile in Suma, a pivotal experience that affirms his mythic heroism. Tamakazura thus embodies a female variant of the noble exile motif, and her character development critically reflects on and disrupts the hero-centered structure of the tale. Field explains this gendered parallelism as “asymmetric and charged with tension,” adding that Tamakazura’s exile “parodies” Genji’s and challenges Genji’s status as hero.[130]
7.2 An Ornament Promoting the Glory
Within the narrative world of the Genji, Rokujōin functions as a center of cultural sophistication and represents political and social power. In this setting, Tamakazura’s character reveals Genji’s own cultural authority and aesthetic sensibilities, which are reflected and enhanced through his new house. According to Kawazoe Fusae, “Rokujōin is the epicenter of a new culture, and the culture that emanated from there is full of ‘modern’ style (Rokujōin koso shin kankaku no bunka no shingenchi de ari, soko kara okuridasareru bunka no kichō koso ‘imamekashi’-sa ni michi-michite iru no de aru).”[131] As Fusae points out, the term imamekashi 今めかし (“novel” or “prosperous”) captures a key position in the Tamakazura Chapters. Thus, this system of cultural epicenter emerges as the signification of a new aesthetic fashion that articulates a cultural paradigm shift with the construction of the Rokujōin—a deliberate break from inherited, furumekashi 古めかし (“old-fashioned”) modes. Furthermore, Kawazoe calls to attention that while the Rokujōin functions in a similar manner to the imperial court, it also serves an idealized version that even surpasses it.[132] Following Kawazoe’s argument, Kim Hyo Suk points out that the word imamekashi indicates cultural refinement and Genji’s autonomous power from the imperial court in the Tamakazura Chapters.[133] Another attribute assigned to Tamakazura’s role in the story is that she acts as the intermediary connecting the Rokujōin to the house of the Palace Minister (naidaijin / uchi no otodo 内大臣), Tō no Chūjō, which Kawazoe interprets as one of the reasons why Tamakazura appears in the story of Hikaru Genji and his women, or, more broadly, to establish such a relationship with him.[134]
Taken together, these observations emphasize that Tamakazura’s character is not merely shaped by the spatial and symbolic framework of the Rokujōin as an ornament, but is, in fact, an inseparable aspect of its prosperity and ideological significance. Building on this, Field offers a compelling reading regarding the story’s narrative mechanisms. She explains the plot forces that lead to Genji's adopting of Tamakazura and placing her in his newly built mansion as follows:
[…] Tamakazura enters with a well-defined function in order to embellish Genji’s glory, she will be set to work at neither stitching nor cleaning but at playing the perfect young lady. By
polishing her into the new ornament of the Rokujōin, Genji will generate new stories, new
marriage plots. This is the storytelling side of Tamakazura’s potential use for Genji. As for the
other, the possibility of significant action by the time Tamakazura appears on the scene, Genji has already lived a life of significant action.[135]
According to Field, Tamakazura’s appearance promotes Hikaru Genji’s and his new mansion’s prosperity, contrasting with Ōmi no Kimi, who takes menial jobs, is treated like a servant, and becomes a laughingstock. Moreover, Field assigns a dual function to Tamakazura’s character, first being a plot device and a catalyst for bringing forth significant events, and second, as a narrative tool for storytelling, which enables Genji to design a wife battle (tsuma-arasoi 妻争い) among young courtiers with the potential for new possibilities to enrich the story’s plot.
In a similar light, Suzuki Hideo explains the intent behind Tamakazura’s character as something more than based on formal matters. He explains that it is to captivate the hearts of the sukimono—impassioned suitors—by causing emotional turmoil with the presence of “an ornament-like young lady” (hanagata no himegimi 花形の姫君).[136] Having many distinguished courtiers charmed by his false daughter, Genji makes room for Tamakazura to occupy an increasingly central and celebrated position within the Rokujōin, which also shows her narrative function as a driving force in the story. Correspondingly, the world of the Rokujōin, as Suzuki suggests, may be seen as “embodying the very spirit of suki (aesthetic refinement and longing) and irogonomi (ideals of sensuality)[137]—forces that irresistibly attract people from the very depths of their souls” (Rokujōin no sekai wa, hitobito o sono tamashii no kontei kara hikitsukete yamanai ‘suki’ ‘irogonomi’ no seishin o gugen shite iru to mo mirareyō).[138] However, despite having erotic desires for Tamakazura himself, Genji does not let her become more than a romantic ideal for him, as he believes that his feelings for Murasaki are without comparison. Genji wants her to be with someone who can provide her with a better social position, preferably as the principal wife. Furthermore, having Yūgao’s daughter as a wife would break, as Fujii claims, the taboo of having a sexual relationship both with the mother and her child.[139] As a result, Genji’s feelings for Tamakazura are often derisively criticized as a “middle-aged love affair” (chūnen no koi 中年の恋) of the protagonist.[140]
Genji masterfully plots a marriage tale around Tamakazura and creates opportunities for him to be seen, in contrast to the young suitors whom he believes are inferior to him. The previously discussed scenes of the archery contest and imperial procession are the most explicit examples of Genji’s intention to portray his superiority over other male characters —in this case Tamakazura’s suitors[141]—who are also distinguished courtiers.
「御弟にこそものしたまへど、ねびまさりてぞ見えたまひける。年ごろかくをり過ぐさず渡り睦びきこえたまふと聞きはべれど、昔の内裏わたりにてほの見たてまつりし後おぼつかなしかし。いとよくこそ容貌などねびまさりたまひにけれ。帥の親王よくものしたまふめれど、けはひ劣りて、大君けしきにぞものしたまひける」とのたまへば、[…][142]
“I know that he is your younger brother,” she replied, “but to me he looked older than you. I gather that he comes faithfully to keep you company on these occasions, but I had not seen him since my last glimpse of him at the palace. He is very handsome and dignified now. One could say that His Highness the Viceroy has a degree of looks, but he lacks presence and hardly resembles a proper Prince.”[143]
During the archery event Genji organizes in the Hotaru chapter, he asks Hanachirusato what she thinks of His Highness of War “Hotaru”,[144] toward whom he is leaning more as a potential husband for Tamakazura. Hearing her comments, Genji feels flattered and content. While Genji has been demoted to commoner status and thus excluded from the imperial line, Hotaru remains an officially recognized prince, retaining his position within the imperial line of succession. Yet, despite his youth and imperial position, in looks and presence, Hotaru is no match for Genji. Moreover, in the imperial progress to Ōhara, Genji gets to stand in line with his rival, Tō no Chūjō and show off to Tamakazura, who sees her biological father for the first time: “She secretly paid particular attention to His Excellency her father, but despite his dazzling looks and weighty presence, there was only so much and no more to be said for him” (Waga chichi otodo wo, hito shirezu me o tsuketatematsuri tamaedo, kirakirashū mono kiyoge ni sakari ni wa monoshitamae do, kagiri ari kashi わが父大臣を、人知れず目をつけたてまつりたまへど、きらきらしうものきよげに盛りにはものしたまへど、限りありかし).[145] Tamakazura’s internal monologue reveals a critical discernment towards Tō no Chūjō. Tamakazura’s gaze, directed at Emperor Reizei, who shares an incredible resemblance to Genji, is here contrasted with a retrospective consideration of her father. The juxtaposition of male characters in this setting highlights Genji’s otherworldly beauty and distinction. Although his primary motive was to pique Tamakazura’s interest in entering court service by creating an opportunity for her to glimpse the emperor, it is his resemblance to Genji that steals Tamakazura’s heart. In this regard, Tamakazura not only promotes the splendor of the Rokujōin but also legitimates Genji’s superiority in the narrative.
7.3 A Fundamental Narrative Tool
The main storyline of The Tale of Genji is significantly influenced by Tamakazura’s character, whose presence adds another layer to the narrative, creating a diversion from the Genji-centered storyline. As indicated earlier, Tamakazura is often considered superior to her mother for her possession of exceptional looks and distinction. Hirai Kimiko questions this situation and reaches the following conclusion: “Tamakazura is a character consciously created for the new narrative set in the Rokujōin” (Tamakazura wa, Rokujōin o butai to suru atarashii monogatari no tame ishiki-teki ni zōkei sareta jinbutsu de ari 玉鬘は、六条院を舞台とする新しい物語のため意識的に造型された人物であり).[146] By connecting Tamakazura’s superiority over her mother to the author’s intention to position her as the new protagonist, Hirai interprets Tamakazura’s unique characterization to be a narrative strategy that requires a preliminary step of affirmation for her appearance in the story:[147]
Before Tamakazura herself can move independently, she has to gain the recognition of the people around her—[in this case] Ukon and Genji; in other words, it is important to pay attention to the way in which Tamakazura goes through the confirmation stage for her appearance in the story. The fact that Tamakazura’s character formation itself gives a sense of intentionality may be a contributing factor to this kind of storytelling. Indeed, while there may have been some artificiality on the author’s part, the depiction of Tamakazura’s character is unique in The Tale of Genji, especially given the strong impression that the narrative typically progresses through the actions of an initial, distinctive character.[148]
This passage highlights the necessary condition for Tamakazura’s emergence as a character in the story: she must first be “validated.” Her narrative staging is thus mediated through others’ perceptions, which function as a narrative mechanism of legitimation. Hirai’s suggestion of “intentionality” (ito-teki na kan 意図的な感) regarding Tamakazura’s character formation invites a reflection on the synthetic (artificial) dimension of literary characters, as defined by Phelan and Rabinowitz—that is, the awareness that characters are deliberate artifacts shaped by structural foundations. Hence, Murasaki Shikibu’s narrative technique to drive the story forward with Tamakazura’s gradual integration into the narrative space—dependent on social and narrative recognition—marks a deviation that sets her apart as a character whose formation is not only thematic (conceptual) and mimetic (realistic) but also synthetic (artificial). According to Ralph Rader, creating realistic fiction entails the author making the appearance that individuals are functioning autonomously within a setting that is similar to our reality. In this case, the illusion is maintained even though the characters strategically fulfil a fundamental purpose set by the author. Thus, the balance between portraying characters as autonomous entities while serving the main narrative objectives emphasizes the dual dynamic of the mimetic (realistic) and the synthetic (artificial) elements.[149]
Moreover, Tamakazura’s reentry into the storyworld and court society represents her symbolic return from a cultural exile. It delineates a contrast between the center (aristocracy) and the periphery (provinciality): an opposition that reflects cultural hierarchies and, therefore, the narrative’s thematic (conceptual) dimensions. As a result, Tamakazura’s character brings unresolved themes and tensions into the narrative, such as female agency, displacement, resiliency, and character growth. Meanwhile, the Tamakazura Chapters enhance the story’s thematic (conceptual) depth and depiction of human experiences by incorporating binary oppositions with key elements of the story: courtly elegance and provinciality, the capital and the provinces, the center and the periphery, truth and fiction, Minamoto and Fujiwara, as well as the motif of the serious man and the man of taste.[150] These thematic (conceptual) binaries, therefore, enrich the narrative complexity of the Genji and offer significant character interactions, arguably strengthening the emotional impact of the main plot.
Through Tamakazura’s character arc, the Genji interrogates its own values, unravels the hero’s weaknesses, and makes space—however ambivalently—for a female-centered restoration and heroi(ne)sm. With the reintroduction of Tamakazura’s character, her mother Yūgao’s story comes to a conclusion; a feminized version of the exile motif is articulated, and most importantly, a narrative tension is created for the Rokujōin’s unveiling ceremony and its publicized prosperity. Accordingly, Tamakazura’s presence allows the text to explore the narrative continuity and the limits of Genji’s masculine and symbolic power.
8 Conclusion
This article has examined how Tamakazura—initially positioned as a marginal figure in The Tale of Genji—evolves in the Tamakazura Chapters and becomes a central figure narratively and thematically. Tamakazura’s character arc exemplifies a liminal position that resists fixed roles, demonstrates agency, and unfolds dialogically through perceptions, reflections, and self-awareness. While I interpret Tamakazura’s marginality as part of her characterization as a “liminal character,” I argue that Tamakazura is neither a minor nor a fully major character, but a central character and a leading heroine of her own story.
Due to her wit and observation skills, Tamakazura quickly adapts to court society and satisfies Genji’s high expectations. In addition to developing aristocratic taste, skills, and demeanor, she is exposed to many outstanding courtiers and acquires in-depth knowledge of irogonomi. At the same time, she resists Genji’s seduction and avoids becoming subject to court gossip. Therefore, although her character’s conduct does not express full autonomy, her resilience is evident in her unwillingness to follow Genji’s marriage plans for her. Within the limitations of her staged existence, Tamakazura’s tenacity highlights the thematic (conceptual) significance of female agency.
Tamakazura goes through trials, and her character develops in relation to others within the Ten Tamakazura Chapters. From being perceived as a symbolic object—representing her mother’s link (yukari) to Genji and being a memento (katami) of their past love affair — to becoming an exemplary model for all women. While the heroines of the Genji are all situated within Heian social norms, Tamakazura’s explicitly portrayed development in the narrative, which foregrounds her gradual growth, becomes a distinctive feature of her character. In Bakhtinian terms, her “unfinishedness” becomes more observable: her identity emerges dialogically, responding to others’ perspectives and shifting social pressures rather than being presented as static or fixed. Thus, this article elucidates that Tamakazura’s character arc is determined not by resolution but by potential, as an inherently dialogical and social construct that enables transformation and makes room for growth.
By drawing on narratological approaches, particularly Bakhtin’s exotopy and Phelan and Rabinowitz’s tripartite character model, this study has shown that Tamakazura's character is not merely a vessel for the theme or plot. Instead, Tamakazura emerges as a complex character, complicating distinctions between major and minor figures. As a mimetic (realistic), synthetic (artificial), and thematic (conceptual) figure, her functions within the Tamakazura Chapters reveal the dynamics of character formation and narrative methods of The Tale of Genji. Therefore, by further examining the influence of Tamakazura’s character formation, a deeper understanding of the intricacies of Murasaki Shikibu’s narrative strategy and her artistic construction of a multifaceted literary masterpiece is illuminated. Finally, this study has examined Tamakazura’s character formation and foregrounded her emergence in the story as an act of narrative driving force. It also suggests the value of integrating narratological concepts into the analysis of Heian court novels (monogatari).
References
Abbreviations
SNKBZ Shinpen Nihon koten bungaku zenshū 新編日本古典文学全集Suche in Google Scholar
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Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Inscribed Personalities: Thoughts on Author, Narrator, and Character as One Continuum in Premodern Japanese Literature
- Zwischen Autor und erzähltem Ich – Zu den Instanzen der Medialität in der narrativen Man’yōshū-Dichtung
- Tamakazura and the Unfinished Self: A Narratological Study of Character Formation, Agency, and Liminality in The Tale of Genji
- Böser Mensch, guter Mönch? Der literarische Typus des verwegenen Mönchs am Beispiel der transtextuellen Figuren Mongaku und Benkei
- Asaina’s “Wrecking of Hell”: Exploring the Formation of a Literary Character
- Schreiben, um das Leben zu verändern oder um es zu ergründen? Zur gegenseitigen Durchdringung von Leben und Literatur im japanischen Jinsei-sōshō-Disput (1893) und zu dessen „westlichen“ sowie „östlichen“ Quellen
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Inscribed Personalities: Thoughts on Author, Narrator, and Character as One Continuum in Premodern Japanese Literature
- Zwischen Autor und erzähltem Ich – Zu den Instanzen der Medialität in der narrativen Man’yōshū-Dichtung
- Tamakazura and the Unfinished Self: A Narratological Study of Character Formation, Agency, and Liminality in The Tale of Genji
- Böser Mensch, guter Mönch? Der literarische Typus des verwegenen Mönchs am Beispiel der transtextuellen Figuren Mongaku und Benkei
- Asaina’s “Wrecking of Hell”: Exploring the Formation of a Literary Character
- Schreiben, um das Leben zu verändern oder um es zu ergründen? Zur gegenseitigen Durchdringung von Leben und Literatur im japanischen Jinsei-sōshō-Disput (1893) und zu dessen „westlichen“ sowie „östlichen“ Quellen
