Parasitic gaps aren’t parasitic, or, the case of the Uninvited Guest
-
Peter W. Culicover
und
Susanne Winkler
Abstract
A parasitic gap construction typically occurs when an otherwise illicit gap in an island is ameliorated by a gap elsewhere in the sentence. In this paper, we consider the relationship between the unacceptability of extraction from subject islands (ExtrSubj) and the amelioration associated with parasitic gaps. We argue that there is no parasitic gap mechanism per se that has the effect of making extraction from an island grammatical. Rather, the link between the two is a matter of processing complexity. Our central claim is that in ExtrSubj, the presence of a distinct referring argument in the predicate contributes processing complexity. This referring argument is the ‘Uninvited Guest’. If an instance of ExtrSubj is of reduced acceptability, inclusion of the Uninvited Guest is likely to make it fully unacceptable, or ‘ungrammatical’ in conventional terms. On the other hand, linking of the argument position to the extracted A′ constituent – a ‘parasitic gap’ configuration – does not contribute additional processing complexity, thus giving rise to the appearance of amelioration.
Funding source: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
Award Identifier / Grant number: 75650358
Acknowledgments
For helpful comments and questions and the opportunity to organize our presentation, many thanks to the Synners discussion group at Ohio State, especially Michael White, Bob Levine, Daniel Puthawala, Jordan Needle and Symon Stevens-Guille, the members of the Syntax Roundtable at the University of Washington, and the audience at the LingLunch of the Université de Paris VII-Diderot. We are particularly grateful to Andrew McInnerney, Giuseppe Varaschin and two anonymous reviewers for extensive and constructive feedback on an earlier draft. Any errors are our responsibility, of course. This research is based on work funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) – SFB 833 – Project ID 75650358.
Appendix: Corpus examples
| spending time with | |
| a. | And she was one who spending time with was priceless – a gift, worth every minute? Yes, I get that she was ‘diagnosed’ with cancer just shy of 3 years ago, but …[21] |
| b. | More than anything though, The Joker is a fascinating character who spending time with is a treat.[22] |
| c. | I’m looking for someone who I click with. You know, the type of person who spending time with is effortless.[23] |
| d. | So thoughtful!! Gifts from someone who spending time with is a relief, a breath of fresh air, like walking into your home and sitting on the couch after a long day, etc, ect![24] |
| e. | IT’S GONE. TIME WITH MY MOM IS GONE. And she was one who spending time with was priceless – a gift, worth every minute?[25] |
| f. | Survived by her children, Mae (Terry), Dale (Andelyn), Joanne (Gary), Cathy (Jordan), George, Betty (Tim), Danny (Angela); a proud grandmother of 14 grandchildren and 16 great-grandchildren, who spending time with was one of her finest joys; brothers, Harold and Mark (Pearl); sisters, Jennie and Joan.[26] |
| g. | In your head you’re able to let the mind wander to all sorts of corners, day dreaming about the happy things you hope might happen one day, the good times you’ve enjoyed, and the people who spending time with makes you feel good.[27] |
| h. | The purpose of a relationship (in my mind) is to find someone who spending time with makes you happier than you would be on your own, this guy’s behaviour does not represent that in my opinion and it certainly doesnt sound like minor character traits that you may be able to change with time because it doesn’t sound like he’s at all willing to change.[28] |
| i. | I can see how isolated you are feeling - does writing here help to ease that? Is there anyone locally who you do feel able to reach out? Is there anyone who spending time with helps to alleviate that feeling?[29] |
| j. | There’s frequently someone who spending time with is the opposite of a gg with in a loss (often even in wins).[30] |
| k. | Words won’t describe how much I love you man, you’re really a good and a funny friend who spending time with is like living in heaven. Happy birthday and I hope from my deep heart success for your life and to always achieve your goals.[31] |
| l. | And thus you become one of those friends who spending time with is a ridiculous chore.[32] |
| m. | An unparalleled, unique woman with nothing ever to say and who spending time with is crushingly dull. [very long link omitted to save space] |
| n. | What’s wrong with building between people who actually bring meaning to our lives and who spending time with is generative rather than depleting?[33] |
| o. | However, there have been girls who spending time with and going places because we love them have made us happy.[34] |
| p. | Definitely the most important advice is to join an orchestra. You will not only meet likeminded individuals who spending time with will improve your playing, but friends and connections for life.[35] |
| q. | He leaves behind his grandchildren who cared daily for him at his home;… four great-grandchildren, who spending time with was the highlight of his day;…[36] |
| r. | But even if that were so, it would seem that he had at least one person in his life who spending time with and whose love made him feel pure bliss.[37] |
| s. | I just moved into a new place with my boyfriend, Josh, and we both have families who spending time with is important.[38] |
| t. | By this she meant, if someone is making me feel bad about myself or is causing me pain and upset, they shouldn’t be in my life, and that I should value those who spending time with always feels like a positive experience.[39] |
| u. | I guess the ultimate reason why I was finally able to enter a relationship is because I found someone who spending time with is like spending time by myself.[40] |
| v. | Most people out there have someone who is a part of their family, but who spending time with is stressful or unpleasant.[41] |
| w. | Do you have vendors you work with that you truly enjoy? People who work hard for you, do a great job and who spending time with makes the day go by happily and productively?[42] |
| x. | If I was to give up the life I lead, it’d have to be for someone incredible, someone I don’t actually want to leave, someone who spending time with would be more important than going anywhere or doing anything else.[43] |
| y. | I’ve always been very introverted and for me they are the one person who spending time with isn’t a chore or draining, I’d rather spend time with them than be by myself.[44] |
| z. | I’ve found people who spending time with isn’t an exhausting experience and actually gives me a boost[45] |
| aa. Seek Out Those People Who Spending Time With Gives You Energy/Inspiration.[46] | |
| with whom spending time | |
| a. | Focus on those with whom spending time is delightful, client sessions which are such a pleasure that time simply flies.[47] |
| b. | - …with them – the people who love you and who you love, who you laugh with and who spending time with is enriching rather than exhausting.[48] |
| c. | And she was one who spending time with was priceless – a gift, worth every minute? Yes, I get that she was ‘diagnosed’ with cancer just shy of 3 years ago, but …[49] |
| d. | I Hate Myself :) centers on two thoroughly repellant, self-absorbed figures with whom spending time proves a nearly intolerable trial.[50] |
| e. | I got to know Maarten as a bonvivant, classic philosopher and thinker with whom spending time is joyful as well as stimulating.[51] |
| f. | The pig, while messy, was not as messy as Rick, with whom spending time remains glorious torture: ‘Lead Balloon’ returns[52] |
| who talking to | |
| a. | On the other hand, so are my grandma, boss, guy friends, etc. who talking to is going to be different in many ways from talking to someone I want to/am dating/sleeping with.[53] |
| b. | I have a few friends I’ve known for a while who talking to is easy and this girl I’m seeing over break who I’ve also known for a while.[54] |
| c. | Such a shame that that progress comes by arguing, and refuting those people who talking to is a ‘waste [of] breath’.[55] |
| d. | I wouldn’t take it personal. I’m sure you’ll find some people who talking to will be easy.[56] |
| e. | Today, there was this person who talking to would make my life exponentially more complicated and fucked up.[57] |
| f. | A guy who talking to is like second nature;[58] |
| g. | I have another professor who talking to is like yelling at a wall more so when you know this class is very packet tracer centered that is a rapidly compounding issue.[59] |
| h. | Like, all kinds of friends; those people you just click with and who talking to is just ridiculously natural …[60] |
| i. | There are some people who talking to is a waste of time.[61] |
| j. | In school and now, other people have felt like empty husks who talking to is pointless.[62] |
| k. | You should try as much as possible and find a lawyer who communicates with you in an understandable manner and one who talking to is easy.[63] |
| l. | there are some people who talking to gives you a sort of high.[64] |
| m. | … Deathstroke, and some other important characters, such as Alfred (who talking to gives you more XP), James Gordon, and Barbara Gordon.[65] |
| Miscellaneous gerunds | |
| a. | There are many other changes, in minor detail which finding out about is almost a hobby on its own !![66] |
| b. | I’m a guy who likes traveling, meeting people and places. After living in US, I could increase this desire of knowing the World and its different cultures. Once you start it, you don’t want to stop anymore. Also, I am a person who getting along with is really easy. Love music, sports, dancing, jokes, fun.[67] |
| c. | I will be meeting my co-teacher, who getting along with is crucial to my sanity in Korea.[68] |
| d. | I think you are a giant jackass with a name of an ancient actor which making jokes about is no longer funny, even he is probably sick of it.[69] |
| e. | It’s old tech so nobody is invested in improving it further meaning that what Nintendo launched with is what they’re stuck with, they likely cost almost as much to product now as they did then as they’re just running the same manufacturing process which spending money on would be pointless.[70] |
| f. | As long as you have the correct e-mail address for the recipient (the only scary bit) then the system works well and is ideal for those who buying presents for is …[71] |
| g. | I’ve been caught for some really minor things. I’m in the process of paying back my latest bout of kleptomania, which fighting against is an everyday struggle.[72] |
| h. | There are some things which fighting against is not worth the effort. Concentrating on things which can create significant positive change is much more fruitful.[73] |
| i. | you are one of those who arguing with is just like with women …useless [sic] [74] |
| j. | I just defended you by saying /pol/ is all about defying authorities, which appealing to is a fallacy, and you call ‘us’ peterson *******s.[75] |
| k. | If you are absent for a class, you should get any assignments and complete it before the next time the class meets. This is a class that keeping up with is really important since topics tend to build on one another.[76] |
| l. | Suddenly, the locusts disappeared and were replaced by rows of young corn plants that at first I mistook for the green cannon lilies that taking care of was part of my work assignment.[77] |
| m. | When I faced a difficult decision, a challenge, a controversial topic or was in a place that getting out of was tough, Dave would look me straight in the eye and tell me, “Do the right thing.”[78] |
| n. | Nov 22, 2009 – It is no wonder that I am already missing New York, a city that is extremely easy to fall in love with and that staying away from is tremendously …[79] |
| o. | My co-workers were all older individuals with who [sic] getting along with was a pleasure and I’m sure they might say the same about me.[80] |
| p. | She got all worked up over someone who’s probably not going appreciate her advice (at least not now), and who living with is just going to continue being intolerable.[81] |
| q. | Here I am, getting up early for a soccer match, but I can’t make myself get up and spend time with God, who having a relationship with is so much more important than watching sports.[82] |
| r. | The tough part is finding people who hanging out with is a joy.[83] |
| s. | Why would the marginal distribution of the response (height) matter? (What’s the value in even looking at it? That just says you have a large Nutrient effect, which finding out about is the point of doing the ANOVA)[84] |
| a. | Yeah, the behind the scenes stuff always gave me the impression he’d be the type of guy who working with would be one of the first things you’d list as a positive about your job. [85] |
| b. | He still wore suit and tie, something the Selkie very much appreciated, telling of a man, who understood the meaning of the Geansai – a bright man, someone, who working with would be a pleasure and the result something all could agree to.[86] |
| c. | Casanova, there has been an occasional story about a woman who just wouldn’t take no for an answer, or who sleeping with was just an all-around bad idea. |
| d. | To the Il Bandito made with peperoncini-infused Montelobos Mezcal, Cointreau, lime, pink & black lava salt that is recommended by Beau Speer, head bartender at Scarpetta, as a way to spice up the spaghetti without asking for some hot sauce (which asking for would probably get you slapped by Scott Conant himself).[87] |
| e. | That might be a good idea, the only way I could get her contact information would be through my SM though, which asking for would become a fiasco.[88] |
| f. | Until Marinette, the shy classmate who tended to word-vomit in his vicinity and otherwise cease being able to function like a normal human for reasons he had yet to understand (and which asking about would get him sly looks from Alya and concerned looks from Nino), was there.[89] |
| g. | I’m currently in a potomac double with wood floors, which would be super nice if my roommate were actually someone who living with was bearable.[90] |
| a. | I know a smart woman: my Mum, who going out with is always great fun.[91] |
| b. | Partying is fun, until you find someone who staying home with is more fun.[92] |
| c. | She got all worked up over someone who’s probably not going appreciate her advice (at least not now), and who living with is just going to continue being intolerable.[93] |
| d. | You’ve got the only boss in my brother’s company who sleeping with will get you nowhere.[94] |
| e. | to me, meat head is more the image of a short hair/shaved head bloke whos well built, some one who looking at makes you think i wouldnt like to tackle him or get in his way.[95] |
| Infinitivals | |
| a. | The Liberals are in permanent thrall to the protectionist Nationals who make up the coalition numbers, some of whom have social positions which to describe as antiquated is insulting to antiques.[96] |
| b. | Leaving the room, she is quick to offer you some Arabic coffee and dates which to refuse would be insane because both are delicious, and an opportunity to relax and eat is welcome when working twelve hours.[97] |
| c. | …enactment, which to refuse would indeed be assuming the responsibility by thwarting the Governor’s policy. The honourable member for Ellesmere had …[98] |
| d. | I desire that you accept of no offers of transportation from officials who deprived you of the very food, in some cases, which was necessary to supply your pressing wants, and who couple their offers of a free passage with conditions which to accept would cast a stain upon your patriotism as Irishmen and as free citizens, who are bound to sympathize with every struggling nationality.[99] |
| e. | The moment itself was something which to deny would be a blasphemy.[100] |
| f. | On various occasions, I have deplored the disgraceful event, which to deny would betray a defiance of truth, or a lapse of faculties, best refuted by your uniform reception of my, perhaps too frequent, addresses.[101] |
| g. | …spirit fond of encountering difficulties, which to avoid would incur no censure, but which to meet would be impertinent and hazardous.[102] |
| h. | In his bedroom, which to describe as small would be a gross understatement, he has an audio studio setup.…[103] |
| i. | Situations were also created which, to describe as merely vexatious, would be to indulge in an understatement. But has it not been said: ” to suffer for the Church …[104] |
| j. | He has put his heart and soul into his beloved estate, as well as a financial investment which to describe as significant is euphemistic in the extreme.[105] |
| k. | I bump into Helen D who has decided to run today, and she produces her race trainers which to describe as soggy is an understatement.[106] |
| l. | Alas, this was not the case at press night, when the only thing that could save the show from an audience apparently riddled with coughing, shuffling, squeaking chatterboxes was Hurt’s performance, which to describe as riveting would be an understatement.[107] |
| m. | Dahms (2010) calls for dynamic social theory that conceptualizes modern societies as “force fields that are being maintained (or that maintain themselves) through a nexus of complex, contradictory, and contingent feedback loops which to describe as ‘multidimensional’ underplays the exceedingly intricate and mutually reinforcing and stabilizing processes and their interplay with types of orders – structures, systems, organization, and institutions–each of which adhere to the kinds of patterns that are endemic to societies as a whole, as ‘totalities’” (p.83).[108] |
| n. | Of all the rulers not twoscore had escaped, and these into regions of peril which to describe as sanctuary would be mockery. –The Moon Pool by Abraham Merritt [Similar quotes, lyrics][109] |
| o. | The Monty Python troupe of enduring legend never thought it needed to confine itself to one satirical target at a time. Its style, which to describe as ”unbuttoned” would be an understatement, is permanently enshrined in the musical that alumnus Eric Idle created after ”Monty Python’s Flying Circus” left the airwaves and a few uproarious films had been made.[110] |
| p. | …and the absolutely outstanding food, served in portions which to describe as generous would be a serious understatement of their gargantuan proportions.[111] |
| q. | It’s an excellent twist to the Simons narrative, one which began in 1995 when he launched his menswear brand – an intelligent, conceptual label, which to describe as ‘influential’ is something of an understatement.[112] |
| r. | In this context, I don’t think that there has ever been a better representative of the community from which he came than Tim Fischer–everything about him: the way he spoke, his iconic hat, his love of trains, his no-nonsense, practical way of viewing the world. But there was one part of Tim which to describe as typical rather undersells him, although it is an aspect of his being to which we would all aspire, because Tim’s integrity–his sense of honour, his honesty, his deep sense of decency–was special and it was rare.[113] |
| s. | MirrorLines isn’t a trading system on its own. What you can use it for is to see revealed on the chart the dynamic levels of Support and Resistance that have previously been hidden from your view. MirrorLines can also reveal the direction of the next trend that is about to unfold, which to describe as helpful would be an understatement![114] |
| t. | The one positive is that it means no repeats of Mrs Brown’s Boys late on in the evening, which to describe as a comedy is to misuse the English language.[115] |
| u. | A circular walk around Cossall Common produced a selection of images (examples above) which to describe as underwhelming would be exceedingly generous and to use them for this page would have been another example of madness.[116] |
| v. | Ira embarked on a fitness regime which to describe as punishing would be an understatement.[117] |
| w. | The Liberals are in permanent thrall to the protectionist Nationals who make up the coalition numbers, some of whom have social positions which to describe as antiquated is insulting to antiques.[118] |
| a. | He has put his heart and soul into his beloved estate, as well as a financial investment which to describe as significant is euphemistic in the extreme.[119] |
| b. | The Hammers Chat supremo is using his second channel to bring you a look at what we might expect to be happening within the team this season which to describe as “potentially exciting” is probably as big an understatement as we can find.[120] |
| c. | For purposes of Proof the important distinction lies solely between assertions capable of denial with a meaning, and those which to deny would contradict the postulated meaning.[121] |
| that the owner of | |
| a. | A distressed home is either one that has already been foreclosed on or one that the owner of is trying to avoid foreclosure by listing on the …[122] |
| b. | …because it’s worth supporting a tiny Time Business that the owner of is very good-hearted and his staff also is too every chance I get I refer potential clients to.[123] |
| c. | a 390SE which the owner of was just “odd” finally after much haggling and a viewing where he wouldn’t let me drive it (or drive it himself) …[124] |
| which the cure for | |
| a. | A whole box of shredded wheat (vet visit), a bee (vet visit), a razor, and the latest mouse bait (2 days ago), which the cure for is 1 Tbs. of …[125] |
| b. | If you feed your pet a Poisonous Jelly, it should wind up with Neomonia, which the cure for is much cheaper.[126] |
| c. | Soot means rich ie incomplete combustion which the cure for is more air.[127] |
| a. | A clear supernatant solution is obtained after less than 2 min (c), which a part of was separated using a syringe without any filter (d) and stored under reaction …[128] |
| b. | Although he was a pariah (which some of was his own doing by his actions around camp), Russell was able to find the idol and execute two …[129] |
| c. | There’s the hagfish, which a version of was kicking around 500 million years ago.[130] |
| Parasitic gaps | |
| a. | In fact, there are a couple of Bajas sitting in my back yard right now which the owner of is talking about selling.[131] I’m about to move and they both …[132] |
| b. | there is stock on the property which the owner of is liable for if they get onto the road and cause damage then nobody cares whether a …[133] |
| c. | It was just another one of those men’s club things which she wasnt supposed to know about, and which asking about would only keep her further away from.[134] |
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© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Articles
- Parasitic gaps aren’t parasitic, or, the case of the Uninvited Guest
- Differential subject marking through SE
- The adjunct condition and the nature of adjuncts
- Proleptic PPs are arguments: consequences for the argument/adjunct distinction and for selectional switch
- Revisiting aspectual se in Spanish: telicity, statives, and maximization
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Articles
- Parasitic gaps aren’t parasitic, or, the case of the Uninvited Guest
- Differential subject marking through SE
- The adjunct condition and the nature of adjuncts
- Proleptic PPs are arguments: consequences for the argument/adjunct distinction and for selectional switch
- Revisiting aspectual se in Spanish: telicity, statives, and maximization
